1,1  15  II AIM 
iMtiM  i:to\,  \.  j. 


S  A  M  I     1  .  I.     A  (i  N  1.  \V  . 

II     \   U  I    1.  K  U  1    ^  .     I'  \ 


f,.'(te.r      a\^     2^ 


JVo.  ^  -  


r.  -  .-^^^^r^.  c..<r==ao  c-^irrac  ,' o —1 :;^ -■  cxg:^:i5>a  <^ 


THE 


^eligi0n  d  i|e  g:0rt|meit ; 


W'^ 


UDOLPH  KEYSEK, 

PROFESSOR    OF    HISTORY    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    NORWAY. 


TRANSLATED  BY 
BAECLAY    PEjSTJS^OCK 


NEAV  YORK: 
CHARLES  B.  NORTON,  71  CHAMBERS  STREET, 

AGENT    FOR   LIBRARIES. 
1854. 


ExTEBED  according  to  Act  of  Congi-css,  in  the  year  1S54, 

By  CHARLES  B,  NORTON, 

in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  for  tlie  Southern  District  of  New  Yort. 


Baker,  Godwin  &  Co.,  Printers, 
1  Spruce  atreel,  N.  Y. 


"  .9 


DANIEL    WILLARD    FISKE, 

OF   THE 

ASTOR  LIBRARY, 

^tts    Solum  £     is    1  nstxi'b  th 
AS  A  TRIBUTE 


TO    A 

DEVOTED  LOYEK  OF  SCANDINAVIAN  LOKE 


FRIEND    AND    FELLOW-TRAVELEK, 

THE  TRANSLATOR. 


PREFACE. 


The  present  work  on  the  Eeligion  of  the  North- 
men is  a  translation  of  "  Nordm^ndenes  Religions- 
fokfatninCt  I  Hedendommen,"  by  the  learned  Pro- 
fessor Keyser,  of  Christiania.  It  was  written  by 
him  in  order  to  give  a  more  extended  publicity  to  a 
series  of  lectm-es  on  the  Popular  Life  of  the  ]N"orth- 
men  in  Heathendom,  which  he  delivered  before  the 
University  of  Norway,  and  is  properly  the  first  of  a 
series  upon  that  subject.  In  his  Preface  the  Pro- 
fessor says : 

"  Not  only  the  growing  general  interest  in  our 
Fatherland's  Antiquity,  but  also  the  student's 
demand  for  a  guide  to  the  early  history  of  the 
Northmen  in  some  measure  adapted  to  his  wants, 
has  at  length  induced  me  to  publish  in  a  wider 
circle,  what  for  a  series  of  years  I  have  delivered  to 
a  limited  one.  I  have  made  a  beginning  with  an 
Exposition  of  the  Peligious  System  of  the  North- 
men in  Heathendom,  both  because  this  forms  the 
natural  back-ground  in  the  delineation  of  the  popu- 
lar life  of  the  Northmen  in  Antiquity,  and  because 
the  greatest  peculiarities  of  that  popular  life  are 
connected  with  their  heathen  Faith,  which  extended 


6 


PREFACE 


its  influence  over  the  popular  character  long  after 
its  own  fall. 

In  presenting  the  dogmas  of  the  heathen  Faith  I 
have  been  as  brief  as  possible.  I  have  kept  to  the 
more  important  mvths  in  their  natural  connection, 
in  order  to  give  a  clear  conception  of  the  nature  and 
principles  of  the  Eeligious  System.  I  have  thought 
it  the  more  necessary  to  be  brief  in  this  part  of  the 
work,  since  our  literature  already  possesses  a  detail- 
ed exposition  of  the  heathen  myths  of  the  Xorthmen 
in  Prof.  P.  A.  Munch's  excellent  work— 27i6  My- 
thologic  and  Heroic  Legends  of  the  North—which. 
may  serve  as  a  guide  to  those  who  wish  to  study 
them  in  detail  and  have  not  an  opportunity  to 
search  them  out  in  the  original  manuscripts,  to 
which  I  have  merely  referred.  The  Interpretation 
of  these  myths  is  naturally  adapted  to  the  preced- 
ing Exposition  of  them,  and  is,  accordingly,  brief. 
But  in  the  Delineation  of  the  Eeligious  Institutions, 
such  as  they  appeared  in  the  public  and  private  life 
of  the  IS'orthmen,  I  have  deemed  it  important  to  be 
more  detailed,  partly  because  a  clear  and  thorough 
understanding  of  them  is  very  important  to  every 
one  who  would  gain  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
popular  life  of  the  Old-Xorthmen,  and  partly  be- 
cause this  subject  has  hitherto  been  less  explicitly 
and  carefully  treated  of." 

In  this  Translation  the  original  has  been  faithful- 
ly followed ;  the  only  deviation  from  the  text  has 
been  in  introducing,  occasionally,  a  phrase  or  a 
sentence  from  the  authorities  referred  to,  when  it 
seemed  allowable  for  the  sake  of  imparting  addi- 


PKEFACE. 


tional  light  or  interest  to  the  subject  on  hand. 
Many  notes,  merely  of  reference  to  the  Eddas  and 
Sagas,  have  been  left  out  of  the  First  and  Third 
Parts,  while  the  notes  to  the  Second  Part  have  been 
materially  enlarged  and  increased  in  number. 

The  Introductory  Chapters  grew  up  of  necessity. 
The  subject  before  us  and  the  constant  reference  to 
the  Eddas  and  Sagas— the  sources  of  Scandinavian 
Mythology  and  History— make  it  desirable,  and 
even  necessary,  to  have  some  knowledge  of  their 
character  and  their  history.  Unfortunately  there  is 
not  yet,  in  the  English  language,  any  history  of  the 
Old-Icelandic  literature  and  its  Eestoration,  to 
which  reference  can  be  made.  An  Abstract  has, 
therefore,  been  here  compressed  within  the  limits  of 
an  "Introduction,"  where  it  must,  of  necessity,  be 
brief.  In  preparing  it,  the  writer  has  availed  him- 
self of  %erup's  ''Survey  of  the  History  of  Studies 
in  Scandinavian  Mythology,"* Koeppen's  "Literary 
Introduction  to  JS^rtliern  Mythology,"-)-  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Eoyal  Society  of  IS^rthern  Antiquaries, 
of  Copenhagen,  and  the  works  referred  to,  gen- 
erally. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  while  the  desire  of 
penetrating  further  into  this  field  of  ancient  litera- 
ture is  daily  increasing,  the  facilities  for  gaining  a 
knowledge  of  its  rich  stores  are  still  more  improved. 
The  student  of  Scandinavian  lore  may  now  rejoice 

*  Uebersicht  der  Geschiolite  des  Studiums  der  Scandinavisdien 
Mythologie ;  Copenliagen;  1816. 

f  Literarische  Einleitiing  in  die  Nordisclie  Mythologie ;  Berlin, 
1837. 


8  PREFACE. 

at  the  treasures  which  are  brought  within  his  reach 
by  the  Astor  Library,  by  wliich  a  journey  to 
Europe  is  rendered  no  longer  absohitely  necessary 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  studies.  In  the  department  of 
Northern  literature  the  collection  of  this  Library  is 
probably  the  fullest  now  existing  out  of  Scandinavia. 
Should  this  volume,  in  its  presentation  of  the  Life 
and  Literature  and  Eeligion  of  the  Old-Xorthmen, 
awaken  a  desire  for  a  more  familiar  accpaintance 
with  the  works  of  their  skalds  and  historians,  and 
give  some  assistance  to  those  who  are  already  inte- 
rested in  the  subject,  it  will  be  a  source  of  heartfelt 
gratification  to  the  writer,  and  an  encouragement  to 
further  labors  in  the  field  he  has  entered  upon. 

B.  P. 

Kennett  Square,  Pa.,  December,   1853. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY     CHAPTERS. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I. — The  Restoration  of  Icelandic  Literature,          .  13 

II.— The  Eddas  and  Sagas  of  Iceland,           ...  42 

"      III. — The  Discovery  of  America  by  the  N'orthmen,  11 

RELIGION    OF    THE    NORTHMEN. 

Introduction, 85 

PART     FIRST. DOGMAS    OF    THE    ASA-FAITH. 

Chapter  1.— Origin  of  the  World, 89 

II.— Pi'eservation  of  the  World,            .         .         .         .  92 

III.— The  Gods  and  their  Abodes,      ....  93 
"        IV. — Propagation  of  Evilj  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 

World,       . 98 

«          v.— The  Destruction  of  the  Gods  and  the  World,  101 
"        YI. — Gimli    and   Kastrond;    Regeneration    of    the 

World, lOS 

PART    SECOND. EXPOSITION    OF    THE    ASA-DOCTRINE. 

Chapter  VII. — Of  the  Interpretation  of  the  Asa-Doctrine  in 

Genera], 105 

VIII.— Of  the  Theory  of  Creation,            .         .         .  110 

IX.— Of  Yggdrasill, 11*7 

"             X.— Of  the  Mythic  Divisions  of  the  World,          .  122 

XL— Of  the  Gods, 125 

XIL— Of  the  Downfall  of  the  World,     ...  141 

XIIL— Of  the  State  of  Being  after  Death,           .         .  146 
"         XIV. — Of  the  Destruction  and  Regeneration  of  the 

Gods  and  the  world, 151 

"          XV. — General  View, 154 


10  CONTENTS. 

TART   THIRD. INFLUENCE  OF    THE  ASA-FAITH    ON  THE    POPU- 
LAR   LIFE    AND    CUSTOMS    OF    THE    NORTHMEN. 

Chapter  XVI. — Ministers  of  Religion, 156 

"        XVII. — The  yEsir  as  objects  of  worship  among  the 

Northmen, 165 

''       XVIII. — Inferior  Deities  as  Objects  of  Worship,           .  179 

XIX.— Images  of  the  Gods, 196 

"           XX.— Sacred  Edifices, 205 

"         XXI. — The  Divine  Service  of  the  Heathens,           .  216 
<'       XXII.— The  Worship  of  the  Dead,  and  of  Natural 

Objects, 230 

"       XXIII. — Oaths;  Duels,  and  Berserksgang ;  Ordeals 

or  Judgments  of  the  Gods,      .         .         .  236 

"      XXIV.— Sorcery, 263 

"        XXV. — Exploring  the  Future ;  Divination,      .         .  279 

"      XXVI.— Other  Superstitions, 297 

"     XXVII. — Influence   of  the   Asa-Faith    upon  the  Na- 
tional Spirit  of  the  Northmen,         .         .  308 
"  XXVIIL— Decline  of  the  Asa-Faith,        .         .        .         .318 

APPENDIX. 

I. — Text  to  various  translations  from  the  Older  Edda  on  the 

foregoing  pages, 323 

II.— Extract  from  Egil's  Saga, 328 

Index, 335 


TABLE 


Of  the  Sounds  of  some  Icelandic  letters  which  occur  in  Old-North- 
ern or  Icelandic  words  in  the  following  pages: 


Icelandic. 
a 

6  {Germ.  5 ;  Fr.  eu)  somewhat 
au  nearly  like  o 
a 


ei,  ey, 

e  (sometimes  h)* 

i»y 

o 

M 
U 
J 

-6t 

f,  middle  or  end  of  a  word 
except  before  1,  or  n, 

g,  k,  before  a  weak  vowel 
except,  g  preceded  by  a  vowel 
11 


English. 


like 


gyj  i^y. 


a 

in  father 

e 

in  her 

ou 

in  thou 

i 

in  fire 

e 

in  met 

ey 

in  they 

yea 
i 

in  yea 
in  hill 

ee 

in  heel 

o 

in  not 

0 

in  more 

u 

in  cut 

oo 

in  booty 

y 
th 

in  yea 
in  thank 

th 

in  with 

V 

in  live 

b 

y 
ddi 

ddn 

rdn 

nn 

rn  nearly  like 

*^*  The  final  r  of  proper  names,  <fec.,  has  been  mostly  dropped, 
it  being  only  a  mark  of  the  no7n.  sing,  of  masculine  nouns  which  is 
lost  in  the  oblique  cases.  When  radical,  it  is  represented  by  the 
modern  Icelandic  ur,  thus  :     NjorS,  Baldur,  for  NjorSr,  Baldr. 

*  Represented  by  je  in  modern  Icelandic. 

f  Th,  in  this  work,  is  mostly  substituted  for  J>,  and  sometimes  d 
for  ^,  especially  in  words  that,  have  become  modernized  and 
partially  Anglicized,  thus:  Odin,  Thor,  for  OSiun,  f)6rr.  Th  re- 
presents the  sound  of  f),  and  d  takes  the  place  of  ^  in  all  the 
modern  languages — Icelandic  excepted — derived  from  the  Old- 
Norse. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTERS 


BY 


THE  TRANSLATOR 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE   EESTOKATIOX   OF   ICELAiS^DIC   LITERATURE. 

When  the  nide  spirit  of  the  l^orthmen  was  modi- 
fied by  the  influence  of  Christianity  and  the  warlike 
deeds  of  the  Yikings  gave  way  to  the  occupations 
of  peaceful  life,  the  literature  of  the  people  began  to 
flourish  more  vigorously.  The  memories  of  the  past 
still  lingered  with  them.  The  deeds  of  their  fathers 
had  been  celebrated  in  song,  and  were  kept  alive  in 
cherished  traditions.  These  songs  and  these  tradi- 
tions were  full  of  the  bold  spirit  of  the  past,  and 
they  inspired  the  writers  of  the  people.  Then  the 
things  which  had  been  said  became  icritten^  and  the 
Saga  literature  of  Iceland  sprang  into  being.  For  a 
long  time  it  flourished  laxuriantly,  but  it  celebrated 
the  exploits  of  heathen  warriors  and  breathed  the 
2 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

spirit  of  the  forsaken  religion,  hence  it  was  doomed 
in  turn  to  give  way  before  tlie  presence  of  that  power 
which  had  snpphmted  tlie  old  faith  and  had  softened 
the  rude  life  of  their  forefathers.  The  literature  of 
the  01d-]^orthmen  became  neglected  ;  it  was  suffered 
to  sink  into  oblivion.  The  manuscripts  in  which  it 
was  preserved,  became  lost  or  forgotten,  and  for  a 
long  period  the  early  history  of  the  people  of  the 
North  was  but  little  known  to  themselves  except 
throucjh  the  medium  of  distorted  tradition  or  the 
semi-fabulous  accounts  of  Paulus  Diaconus,'^  Adam 
of  Bremen,f  and  Saxo  Grammaticus.:j: 

Such  was  the  state  of  literature  at  the  era  when 
the  Keformation  was  introduced  in  the  Xorth.  With 
the  new  life  which  was  then  introduced,  the  love  of 
learning,  after  a  slumber  of  two  centuries,  was  re- 
vived, and  the  various  branches  of  science  were  pur- 
sued with  more  or  less  zeal.  In  the  general  progress 
of  knowledge,  the  lore  of  antiquity  began  to  receive 
special  attention,  and  the  researches  of  antiquarians 
brought  to  light  some  old  manuscripts  whicli  were 
found  in  Iceland.     At  once  a  new  fountain   was 

*  Paul  "Warnefridsson,  a  Longobard  who,  about  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century,  -wrote  historical  sketches  of  the  Longobard  heroes, 
•which  begin  with  Scandinavia. 

f  A  canon  of  Bremen,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  and  ap- 
pended a  geographical  view  of  Denmark  and  tlie  other  northern 
countries. 

X  Saxe  Lange,  who,  from  his  great  learning  received  the  name  of 
Saxo  Grammaticus  (the  scholar),  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
twelfth  century.  At  the  instigation  of  Archbishop  Absalon,  lie 
wrote  the  history  of  Denmark  from  the  beginning  to  the  year  1187. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

opened  from  the  mytliological  and  historical  learn- 
ing of  the  past,  and  the  stream  which  flowed  fortli 
has  become  rich  "and  copious.  From  the  depths  of 
the  ^''orth — from  a  remote  and  unknown  island — a 
dawning  light  appeared,  the  harbinger  of  a  briglit 
day  that  was  to  enlighten  the  Scandinavian  North 
for  a  century  to  come,  and  to  extend  its  rays  through 
other  lands  and  down  to  later  ages. 

In  the  year  1594  was  j^ublished  ''The  Chroni- 
cles of  the  Danish  Kings,"  a  translation  from  the 
Old-Norse  into  Danish,  by  Jens  Mortensen.  Tlie 
appearance  of  this  work  gave  a  new  importance  to 
Scandinavian  Mythology.  The  people  had  been 
told  of  images  of  the  gods  that  stood  in  former  days 
at  Upsala,  of  sacrifices  and  other  religious  cere- 
monies which  were  there  performed  ;  they  had  heard 
of  these  gods  being  present  in  battle,  of  their  wield- 
ing an  influence  over  the  destinies  of  men,  and  in 
all  places  commanding  from  the  ]3eople  the  honors 
and  worship  of  divine  beings.  But  of  their  birth 
and  descent, — from  whence  they  came,  whether 
they  were  ethereal  beings  and  gods  by  nature,  or 
whether  they  were  deified  men  and  heroes — of  these 
things  they  had  but  dim  and  doubtful  ideas.  This 
little  work,  of  which  the  original  author  was  the 
celebrated  Icelander,  Snorri  Sturlason,  made  its  ap- 
pearance to  give  a  response  to  all  these  queries. 

This  intelligence  was  followed  up  by  renewed  in- 
vestigations, and  a  mass  of  mythological  fragments 
was  found  and  brought  to  light  from  the  dark  cor- 
ners and  smoky  rooms  of  old  habitations  in  Iceland. 
The  most  active  and  energetic  among  tliose  who 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

were  engaged  in  tliese  antiquarian  researches,  was 
Arngrim  Jonsson,"  who  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
Kestorers  of  Learning  in  Iceland.  He  labored  inde- 
fatigably  in  this  field  during  a  long  life,  and  did 
much  by  his  publications  and  his  communications  to 
the  learned  men  of  Denmark,  to  arouse  the  attention 
of  northern  historians  to  the  importance  of  Icelandic 
literature. 

In  his  footsteps  followed  Brynjulf  Sveinsson,t  who 
did  important  service  in  the  Held  of  ]N"orthern  My- 
thology, by  his  labors  in  the  same  direction.  Tlie 
learned  Danes  who  corresponded  with  these  equally 
erudite  Icelanders,  and  whose  labors  were  greatly 
enriched  by  their  communications,  were  Stephanius, 
the  editor  of  Saxo,  and  Olaus  AYormius,:|:  the  father  of 
]S"orthern  Archaeology.  In  his  department  the  latter 
had  the  advantage  of  previous  labors  in  that  di- 
rection, especially  of  Count  Ileinrich  von  Eantzau, 
Yedel,  Hvitfeld,  Lyschander  and  others,  but  his  in- 
credible activity  and  energy,  and  his  influence,  laid 
the  first  permanent  foundations,  and  first  opened  the 
path  to  subsequent  labors  in  that  field. 

Arngrim  and  Brynjulf  were  still  pursuing  their 
labors  in  Iceland,  with  unabated  zeal.  In  1G28, 
Arngrim  discovered  the  prose  Edda  and  forwarded 
it  to  "Wormius,  by  whom  it  came  to  the  library  of 

*  Born  1568,  d.  1648.  He  was  ft  pastor  in  IcclanJ,  and  twice 
Rector  of  the  School  at  Ilolar. 

f  Born  1605,  d.  1675,  as  Bishop  of  Skalholt. 

X  Ole  Worm,  b.  1588,  d.  1651,  as  Prof,  of  Medicine  in  Copenhagen. 
Among  his  works  are  "Reg.  Danirt;  Scries,"  1012;  "  Daniconim 
Monumentorum,"  1043;  '.' Specimen  Lexici  Runiei,"  lOr.O;  "Daniea 
Literatura  Antiq."  lOol,  <tc. 


LNTEODUCTIOX.  17 

the  University  at  Coj^enliagen.  Other  fragments 
were  found  from  time  to  time,  and  before  ten  years 
had  elapsed,  Brynjiilf  had  found  fragments  of  both 
the  iDrose  and  the  poetic  Edda.  In  the  year  1640, 
lie  had  found  the  poetic  Edda  complete.  They  were 
written  on  parchment,  and  both  came  to  the  Eoyal 
Library  of  Copenhagen,  The  finding  of  these  manu- 
scripts was  looked  upon  as  a  most  important  and 
invaluable  discovery — the  crowning  labor  of  their 
researches.  It  brought  to  light  the  Bible  of  the  Old- 
Scandinavians,  and  was  as  important  to  the  Mythol- 
ogy of  the  North  as  the  discovery  of  the  books  of 
Moses,  by  Esdras,  was  to  the  religious  faith  of  the 
Hebrews. 

The  zeal  for  antiquarian  researches  continued  un- 
abated, and,  when  Stephanius  and  AVormius  left  the 
field  of  action,  Resenius  entered,  and  after  him 
Bartholin,  who  followed  in  the  path  their  prede- 
cessors had  opened.  The  same  relations  were  kept 
up  with  Iceland,  where  Torfeeus  and  Arnas  Mag- 
ngeus  extended  their  researches  in  the  field  in  which 
Arngrim  and  Brynjulf  had  labored  before  them. 

In  1665  the  first  edition  of  the  prose  Edda  ap- 
peared, together  with  two  pieces  of  the  poetic  Edda 
— the  Yoluspa  and  Ilavamal — published  by  Eese- 
nius.*  This  publication  was  an  important  acquisi- 
tion to  antiquarian  literature,  and  the  Edda  of 
Resenius  was  lono^  a  standard  work  of  reference.   In 

*  "Edda  Islandonim,  conscripta  per  Snorrorcni  Sturlre,  Islandicc, 
Danice  et  Latine"     Ed.  P.  J.  Resenius.     Hafniffi,  1665,  4to. 
"  Philosophia  Antiquissinia  K'orvego-Danica,  dicta  Woluspa,  dc." 
;*  Ethica  Odini,  pars  Eddsc  Sa^mundi,  vocata  Hdvam^l,  <tc." 


18  INTKODUCTION. 

1689,  the  royal  antiquarian  Bartholin  published  his 
"  Antiquities,"  a  classic  work  for  the  time.  It  con- 
tained extracts  from  twenty-one  Eddaic  poems, 
which  gave  a  more  complete  idea  of  the  poetic  Edda 
than  could  be  obtained  from  the  two  poems  of 
Resenius.  In  tlie  translation  of  these  and  other 
fragments,  Bartholin  had  as  amanuensis  Arnas 
Magnaeus,  and  Torf?eus  had  assisted  Resenius  in  his 
translation  of  the  prose  Edda. 

The  government  also  took  an  active  interest  in 
these  antiquarian  researches.  In  1662  Frederick 
III.  sent  Torfseus  to  Iceland  to  collect  manuscripts, 
and  in  1685  Christian  Y.  forbade  the  sale  of  them 
to  any  foreigner. 

While  the  study  of  mythologic  lore  was  thus  zeal- 
ously pursued  in  Denmark,  the  Swedish  scholars 
were  not  idle  in  this  field  of  learning.  They  re- 
ceived manuscripts  at  Upsala,  directly  from  Iceland, 
as  well  as  by  the  purchase  of  the  Library  of 
Stephanius.  But  while  they  went  on  collecting  the 
sources  of  antiquarian  learning,  they  were  not  yet  so 
enriched  thereby  for  want  of  interpreters.  In  sup- 
plying this  deficiency  they  were  aided  by  the  for- 
tunes of  war.  Jonas  Rugman,  a  learned  Icelander, 
was  captured  on  his  way  to  Copenhagen,  during  the 
war  between  Charles  Gustavus  and  Frederick  III. 
in  1658,  and  carried  to  Sweden.  He  was  at  once 
employed  to  introduce  the  study  of  Icelandic,  which 
he  did  by  teaching  the  language,  and  by  his  labors 
in  connection  with  Iceland.  He  was  appointed 
Adjunct  of  the  Antiquarian  College  of  Upsala, 
where  he  died  in  1679.    Through  his  agency  the 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

communication  with  Iceland  was  facilitated,  and 
emissaries  were  retained  there  with  instructions  to 
procure  everything  to  be  found  in  the  shape  of  old 
manuscripts.  A  large  number  were  thus  obtained, 
among  them  the  Upsala  Codex  of  the  Edda.  The 
Antiquarian  Archives  were  established  at  Upsala  as 
early  as  1669,  and  in  1692  removed  to  Stockholm. 
Their  object  w^as  the  preservation  of  Eunic  monu- 
ments and  Icelandic  manuscripts. 

The  Swedish  Antiquarians  labored  even  more 
zealously  than  the  Danes  in  publishing  and  eluci- 
dating the  Sagas,  and  though  the  publications  of 
that  time  are  not  distinguished  for  correctness  of 
text  nor  for  faithful  Swedish  and  Latin  translations, 
and  also  usually  parade  a  prolix,  barren  commen- 
tary or  a  wonderful  medley  of  mythologic  and  his- 
toric erudition,  still  they  were  for  a  long  time  the 
best,  and  in  a  great  measure  the  only  productions  to 
be  found  of  their  class.  The  Swedes  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  also  produced  some  independent 
mythological  works.  Of  these  the  most  meritorious 
undoubtedly  was  Scheffer's  "Upsalia,"^  although 
Kudbek's  "Atlantica"t  was  by  far  the  most  noto- 
rious.   This  is  a  curious  work,  in  wdiich  there  is  a  most 

*  In  1666.  It  treats  of  the  heathen  temple  at  ancient  Upsala, 
of  the  gods  and  their  worship, 

f  "  Olai  Rudbeckii  Atlantica  sive  Manheim,  vera  Japheti  pos- 
terorum  sedes  ac  patria,  etc.,  etc."  Lat.  and  Swed.  Ups.  1676- 
1679. 

"  Atlanticse  sive  Manheimii  pars  secunda,  in  qua  Solis,  Lunsc,  et 
Terrffi  cultus  describitur,  omnisq.  adeo  superstitionis  hujusce  origo 
parti  Suenonia?  septentr.  terra  puta  Cimmeriorum,  vindicatur,  ex 
qua  deinceps  in  orbem  reliqiium  divulgata  est,  etc."    Ups.  1689. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

ostentatious  display  of  learning,  and  it  contains  some 
of  the  most  extravagant  notions  of  mythological 
history.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  fabulous 
Atlantis  dreamed  of  by  Plato  and  the  later  Greeks, 
which  he  assumes  to  be  Scandinavia  in  general,  or 
more  especially  Sweden.  Here  he  places  the  primi- 
tive home  of  the  human  family,  and  he  not  only 
refers  the  Grecian  legends  of  the  Hyperboreans  and 
Kmmerians,  and  the  uncertain  accounts  of  the 
Scythians,  Kelts,  &c.,  to  Sweden,  but  thither  he 
transfers  Acheron,  the  Elysian  Fields,  Olympus,  and 
the  whole  fable-world  of  Greece.  According  to  him, 
the  Trojans  were  of  Sweclish  origin,  Hercules  a 
native  Swede,  and  even  Plato  and  his  followers  de- 
rived the  chief  part  of  their  wisdom  from  the  songs 
of  the  Swedish  skalds. 

The  Atlantica,  with  all  its  extravagant  fantasies, 
was  a  natural  result  of  the  wild  speculations  which 
had  crept  into  the  field  of  Northern  Mythology.  It 
was  the  whole  reduced  to  a  system,  if  such  foolish- 
ness could  be  called  a  system.  All  that  had  been 
dreamed,  or  thought,  or  questioned,  concerning  the 
gods  and  heroes  of  the  Old-North,  was  brought 
together  by  Rudbeck  in  a  most  fantastic  manner, 
with  that  barren  erudition  and  total  absence  of 
criticism  which  characterized  the  learning  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

This  spirit  exhausted  itself  in  the  Atlantica,  and 
the  researches  of  the  following  age  become  more  in- 
telligible.    Hitherto  the  contents  of  the  Icelandic . 
books  had  been  received  as  literally  true,  and  the 
Eddas  especially  had  been  believed  in  as  immediate 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

divine  revelation.  In  tlie  fervor  of  enthusiasm 
which  those  venerable  relics  of  ancient  wisdom  had 
ins^Dired,  few  had  thought  of  doubting  their  genuine- 
ness and  truth,  and  their  origin  w^as  laid  quite  in- 
definitely in  the  remotest  antiquity,  even  beyond 
the  period  of  Hellenic  culture.  Sometimes,  indeed, 
a  question  was  raised  on  the  age,  origin,  or  import- 
ance of  a  document,  but  the  researches  wxre  made 
with  a  simplicity  and  naivete  very  far  from  serious 
doubt,  and  so  much  were  they  dazzled  by  the 
gold  of  the  newly-discovered  treasures,  that  all  such 
doubts  were  suppressed  as  heresy."^'  But  this  in- 
genuousness and  orthodoxy  began  to  disappear,  and 
they  A^entured  to  doubt,  to  examine,  to  judge; 
superficially  indeed,  but  still  in  the  spirit  of 
true  criticism.  The  Mythology  was  reduced  to 
actual  chronological  history.  Mythological  systems 
were  formed  in  accordance  with  various  interpreta- 
tions of  the  Sagas,  and  interpretation  became  a  new 
and  important  element  in  antiquarian  researches. 

Hitherto  they  had  reflected  little  upon  the  ancient 
gods  and  heroes.  The  ^Esir  ^vere  there,  and  they 
had  taken  them  as  they  were,  without  any  skeptical 
questioning  of  their  possibility.  But  in  the  eighteenth 
century  the  understanding  began  to  grapple  with 
the  Mythos — the  one  sober,  dry,  prosaic — the  parent 
of  all  prose  and  acknowledging  no  other  truth  than 
the  logically  possible  and  the  sensually  apparent, 
the  other  intrinsically  poetic,  miraculous,  and  im- 
possible,—and  in  the  conflict  between  two  principles 

*  Thus  Peringskjold  was  formally  prohibited  by  the  Swedish 
Court  from  writing  against  the  foolish  fancies  of  Rudbeck.[] 
2* 


22  INTEODUCTION. 

SO  untagonistic,  the  iinderstandiDg  carried  the  vic- 
torj.  Then  followed  the  other  extreme  in  which 
the  Northern  Mvthos  was  all  to  be  explained  by  the 
understanding,  and  the  genuine  myths,  which 
existed  only  in  the  spirit  and  the  fantasy  of  the  Old- 
Xorthmen,  became  limited  to  possible,  actual  his- 
tory. The  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
this  as  in  everything  else  when  pushed  to  the  extreme, 
became  unintelligible  from  pure  understanding,  and 
fQolisli  from  excess  of  wisdom,  and  it  was  in  the 
heathen  theology  as  in  the  Christian,  that  fiction  be- 
came falsehood,  miracles,  unmeaning  stupidities, 
truth,  a  dream,  and  idle  dreams  became  trutli, 
under  the  treatment  of  mere  abstract  reason. 

Early  in  the  century  the  study  of  Northern  An- 
tiquities was  elevated  by  the  labors  of  two  highly 
distinguished  Icelanders,  Tliormod  Torfieus  and 
Arnas  MagnoBus,  each  of  whom  had  a  great  in- 
fluence in  a  special  direction — the  former  as  critic 
in  the  field  of  Archaeology,  the  latter  as  restorer  and 
publisher  of  Icelandic  literature.  Arnas  Magn?eus" 
also  WTote  several  keen  essays,  by  wliicli  he  gained 
the  reputation  of  a  learned,  circumspect  and  sober 
critic,  yet  it  was  less  by  his  writings  than  by  what 
he  did  for  the  discovery,  preservation  and  publica- 
tion of  the  literary  monuments  of  Iceland,  that  he 
rendered  his  name  immortal. 

In  1702  he  was  sent  by  Frederick  lY.  to  Iceland, 
in  order  to  make,  with  Paul  Yidelin,  a  thorough 

*  Arni  Mngniisson,  Lorn  1GC3,  of  a  ilistinguij>hed  family,  stiulied 
in  Copenhagen,  and  died  there  as  Professor  of  Ilistorj^  and  Antiqui- 
ties, in  1730. 


mTEODUCTION.  23 

seareli  of  the  island,  and  on  this  occasion  lie  collected, 
during  ten  years,  all  that  was  to  be  found  of  old 
manuscripts,  with  such  diligence,  that  little  was  left 
to  be  done  in  this  field  after  him.  The  greater  part 
of  his  collection  was  unfortunately  destroyed  in  the 
great  fire  of  Copenhagen  in  1728 ;  the  remaining 
MSS.,  1550  in  number,  he  bequeathed  to  the  Uni- 
versity Library,  and  set  apart  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  for  defraying  the  expenses  of  their  publi- 
cation.'-^ 

His  design  was  first  carried  into  execution  in  the 
year  1T60,  when  the  Arna-Magncean  Commission 
was  established  and  began  its  labors  in  the  spirit  of 
its  founder.  It  worked  on  with  indifferent  success 
in  the  beginning;  its  first  publication  (Ivnytlinga 
Saga)  was  a  failure,  and  the  Institution  seemed 
likely  not  to  realize  the  promised  results,  until  1772, 
when  Luxdorf,  Suhm,  Langebek,  and  Eiriksson  were 
placed  at  its  head.  Under  their  direction  it  went  for- 
ward with  new  life.  First  appeared  "  Kristni  Saga," 
and  others  followed  at  intervals,  until  finally,  in  the 
year  1787,  the  long-expected  First  Part  of  the  Older 
Edda  was  published. f     This  was  an  important  event 

*  In  1760,  the  capital  amounted  to  13,356  Rix  Dalers;  in  1194, 
to  18,500  Th. 

f  "  Edda  Sremundar  hinns  FroSa.  Edda  rythmica  seu  antiqnor, 
vulgoSceraundina  dicta,  <tc."  Hafn.  ^8*7.  Yol.  1,  4to.  This  first 
volume  contains  the  mythological  poems  (except  those  published 
by  Resenius),  ^ath  Introduction,  Commentary,  Translation,  and 
Glossary,  in  Latin.  The  second  volume  appeared  in  1818,  the 
third,  and  last,  in  1828.  The  former  contains  the  Epic  lays,  the 
latter,  the  Voluspd,  Illvamal,  and  Rigsm^l,  together  with  a 
Mythological  Lexicon,  and  a  Calendar  of  the  Old-Scandinavians 
oy  Finn  Ma  gnu  sen. 


24  INTKOJ^LXTION. 

to  the  antiquarian  scholar.  It  was  now  possible  for 
every  one  who  had  not  access  to  the  manuscripts,  to 
see  the  Old-Scandinavian  religion  in  its  primitive, 
self-created  form,  and  the  learned  of  other  lands 
were  enabled  to  examine  it  for  themselves.  The 
Edda  of  Resenius,  hitherto  the  mythological  canon, 
was  now  thrown  in  the  background.  This  Institu- 
tion continued  to  flourish,  and  since  the  latter  part 
of  the  last  century  it  has  been  the  central  life  by 
which  the  multifarious  labors  in  JSTorthern  Antiqui- 
ties and  Mythology  have  been  sustained. 

Among  the  contemporary  works  in  this  depart- 
ment, many  of  which  reflect  great  honor  upon  the 
Danish  literati  of  that  time,  we  may  mention  Lange- 
bek's  Collection  of  Danish  Historians,  Schoning's 
edition  of  the  Ileimskringla,  and  the  diversified  la- 
bors of  Suhm.  The  latter  not  only  did  much  him- 
self for  the  restoration  of  Icelandic  literature,  but 
he  encouraged  and  assisted  the  labors  of  others  with 
princely  liberality.  A  number  of  Sagas"  were  pub- 
lished, either  directly  by  him  or  through  his  agency, 
and  at  his  expense.  In  the  same  field  and  with  like 
zeal  labored  Mallet,  Tliorkelin,  Sandvig,  the  elder 
Thorlacius,  and  others.  Mallet  was  a  learned  French- 
man who  devoted  his  attention  to  Scandinavian 
lore,  and  by  his  writings  contributed  to  enlarge  the 
field  of  mythic  studies,  and  give  a  more  systematic 
and  tangible  form  to  Northern  Mythology.  His 
co-laborer  was  a  celebrated  Icelander  named  Eiriks- 
son,  to  whom  he  was  greatly  indebted  for  the  full- 

*  Landnt'ima-bbk,  Orkneyinga  Saga,  Hervarar  Saga,  Eyrbjggia 
Saga,  and  others. 


INTEODUCTION.  25 

ness  and  accuracy  of  liis  works.  His  "  Monuments 
of  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  Mythology  and  Poetry,"^ 
is  a  classic  work.  He  began  a  History  of  Denmark, 
of  wliich,  however,  he  completed  only  the  "  Intro- 
duction," embracing  the  field  of  Northern  Mythol- 
ogy. This  "  Introduction,"  with  the  supplementary 
"  Monuments  "  was  translated  into  English  by  Bish- 
op Percy — compiler  of  the  "Keliques  of  Ancient 
English  Poetry  " — and  published  in  London,  in  ITTO, 
under  the  title  of  ''  Northern  Antiquities ;  or,  a 
Description  of  the  Manners,  Customs,  Keligion,  and 
Laws  of  the  Ancient  Danes  and  other  Northern 
Nations,  with  a  Translation  of  the  Edda,"  &c. 
Percy  greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  this  book,  by  a 
preface  of  "  Proofs  that  Teutonic  and  Celtic  Nations 
were,  ab  origine,  two  distinct  People. "f 

In  the  meantime  the  Icelanders  had  not  been 
idle.  Silently  and  diligently  they  had  labored  on 
from  the  first,  so  that  the  presses  of  Skalholt  and 
Holar  were  kept  in  constant  activity.  As  early  as 
1G8S  the  celebrated  impression  of  the  Flatej^'a-bok 
was  begun:  in  1756  appeared  Markusson's  Collec- 
tion of  the  Sagas. 

So  much  may  be  said  of  the  department  in  which 
Arnas  Magna3us  labored.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
Avas  Torfoeusij:  who  gave  the  form  and '  method  to 

*  "  Monumens  de  la  Mythologie  et  de  la  Poesie  des  Celts  et  partie- 
ulierement  des  anciens  Scandinaves."    Copenhague,  1*756.     4to. 

f  A  new  edition  of  this  work,  revised  and  enlarged,  has  ap- 
peared in  a  popular  form  in  *'  Bolin's  Antiquarian  Library."  Lon- 
don, 1847. 

X  |)orm6d  Torfason,  born  1636,  in  Iceland,  died  1719,  as  RojmI 
Historiographer,  in  Copenhagen.     Ilis  principal  works  are:  "Ar 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

JSTortlieni  Arcliscologj,  especially  the  Mythology, 
which  distinguished  it  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
was  he  who  lirst  subjected  the  whole  Icelandic  litera- 
ture to  a  searching  criticism,  and  arranged  and  sift- 
ed the  confused  mass  of  knowledge  which  had  been 
collected  in  this  field  before  him ;  and  it  was  he, 
also,  who  introduced  and  sanctioned  the  purely  his- 
torical view  of  the  myths,  a  view  which  was  after- 
wards accepted  as  an  axiom,  and  cultivated  by  his 
followers  and  adorers  with  unmeaning  prolixity  and 
foolish  sagacity  to  the  highest  perversion.  This 
was  by  no  means  designed  nor  expressed  by  him, 
but  it  was  determined  by  the  drift  of  his  writings. 
After  him  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  Odin  and 
the  ^sir  were  men,  and  the  mythology  only  history 
in  disguise.  There  was  much  written  during  the 
century  by  his  followers,  but  only  to  dilute  his  sys- 
tem ;  no  new  thoughts  were  presented ;  everywhere 
the  same  ideas,  the  same  perversions;  only 
new  hypotheses  and  new  dogmatisms.  Thousands 
treated  on  the  Northern  Mythology  during  this  pe- 
riod, all  driving  his  system  to  the  extreme.  Only 
in  the  field  of  criticism  some  progress  was  made  by 
Ihre.  It  would  be  impossible  to  name  all  the  books 
of  the  time  in  which  the  ^Esir  were  mishandled. 
There  is  not  a  history  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  or  Xor- 

tiqnitates  septemtr.  seii  Series  Ilogum  etPynastnnim  Danrc"  (from 
Skjold  to  Gorm  the  Old),  Ilafn.  1702;  "Ilistoria  Reruiu  Norve- 
gicanim"  (to  the  Union  of  Calmar),  lb.  1711,  4  vols.  fol. ;  a  Con- 
tinuation of  the  "  Series  Regum  Danire  "  to  Svend  ;  "  Ilrolfi  Ki*akii 
Ilistoria;"  Orkades,  Yinlandia  Antiqiia,  Grecnlandia  Ant.,  <fcc. 
The  publication  of  "Torficana"  (a  Supplement  to  the  Ser.  Rer. 
Dan.)  was  attended  to  hj  Suhm,  in  1777. 


INTEODUCTION.  27 

way  of  that  period  wliicli  does  not  begin  with  Odin 
and  the  yEsir  as  the  introducers  of  civilization,  while 
they  and  all  other  mythic  forms  are  made  into  hu- 
man beings.  Such,  to  take  only  the  most  promi- 
nent examples,  was  the  treatment  of  the  mythos  in 
the  Swedish  Histories  of  Dalin"^  and  Lagerbring,t 
and  so  was  it  to  the  highest  extreme  in  the  histori- 
cal writings  of  Schoning  if  and  Suhm.g 

The  latter  was  efficient  in  carrying  forward  the 
labors  of  Arnas  Magneeus  and  Torfasus,  and  he  con- 
centrated all  the  labors  of  the  century  in  the  field 
of  Northern  Archaeology,  which  he  carried  to  the 
farthest  extreme  of  systematic  representation.  His 
"  Odin  "  is  the  "Atlantica  "  of  the  eighteenth  century  ; 
like  it  the  result  of  all  preceding  researches ;  like  it 
comprehensive,  strange,  even  nonsensical,  yet  not 
fantastic.     This  work  is  the  most  learned  and  com- 


*  "Svea-Rikes  Historie,"  11^1. 

f  "Svea-Rikes  Historie,"  Stockh.,  1^769. 

■\.  "  Om  de  Norskes,  og  endeel  andre  nordiske  Folks  Oprindelse," 
1769. 

§  Pet.  Fred.  v.  Sulim,  b.  1728,  d,  1799,  as  l?oyal  Danish  Historio- 
grapher and  Chamberlain,  was  an  enthusiastic  scholar.  His  works 
in  this  department  are  unsurpassed  for  learning  and  diligent  re- 
search, but  in  regard  to  mythology,  they  contain  only  the  distorted 
notions  of  the  age,  which  he  has  wrought  up  into  the  most  pom- 
pous and  extravagant  caricatures.  Besides  his  "  History  of  Den- 
mark," and  "  Critical  History  of  Denmark,"  his  works  bearing  on 
this  subject  are : 

"Forbedringer  i  den  gamle  danske  og  norske  Historie,"  Kjo- 
benhavn,  1767. 

"Om  de  noi'diske  Folks  jeldste  Oprindelse,"  lb.  1773,  2  vols. ;  and 
more  especially: 

•*0m  Odin  og  den  hedenskc*  Gudelsere,"  Ac,  1775, 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

plete  system  of  ^^ortlieni  Mythology  of  that  age, 
although  it  will  not  bear  the  test  of  scientific  aud 
mythological  criticism  any  more  than  its  predeces- 
sors. 

Towards  the  last  quarter  of  the  century,  a  mass 
of  antiquarian  matte"r  was  produced,  especially  in 
the  decennium  from  1769  to  1TT9,  when  "  Edda  "  and 
''Odin"  and  "Xorthern  Mythology"  became  the 
whole  order  of  the  day.  Eiriksson  wrote  some  small- 
er works  of  merit ;  Bishop  Finn  Jonsson  treated  of 
the  early  inhabitants  of  Iceland  in  an  excellent 
work,  "Ilistoria  Ecclesiastica  Islandire,"  in  1772; 
Ihre  published  his  "Lexicon  Sviogothicum "  and 
"  Letters  to  Lagerbring ;"  and  amid  the  mass  of  writ- 
ings by  which  the  mythological  literature  was  ma- 
terially increasect,  it  gained  the  most,  in  a  scientific 
view,  from  the  works  of  Thorkelin^'"  and  Thorlacius.f 
Amid  all  this  exuberant  growth  of  dry  material  in 
the  mythological  field,  we  find  a  most  beautiful  or- 
nament in  "Baldur's  Death,"  by  Evald  (1771),  a 
striking  evidence  of  what  the  myths  of  the  ancients 
may  become  in  ^the  hands  of  the  inspired  poet ; — 
and  in  the  Rector  Ilalfdan  Einarsson's  "  Sciagraphia 
Ilistoriae  Islandicas"  (Ilafn.  17S7),  we  have  a  useful 
cyclopedia  of  Icelandic  Literature. 

Ey  this  time  the  subject  had  reached  other  lands 
and  begun  to  awaken  attention,  especially  in  Ger- 

*  "  Vafthrudnismcil,  sive  Odarum  Eddro  Sa^mundina}  una,  etc." 
Hafnia",  1*779. 

f  "  Antifjuitat.  boreal,  observationes  Spec.  ;"  a  series  of  articles 
in  wliich  the  richest  treasures  of  Eddaic  lore  and  Icelandic  learn- 
ijig  are  presented^ 


I^TTRODUCTION.  29 

many.  HItlierto,  but  a  few  Germans  had  ventm-ed 
on  tlie  Northern  Mythology,  as  Arnkiel  in  his 
"Heathen  Eeligion  of  the  Cimbrians,"  in  1691, — a 
\York  prepared  with  more  dih'gence  and  zeal  than 
taste  and  criticism — Westphalen  in  his  "  Monu- 
ments," 1745,  and  Schiitz,  in  several  works  of  a  te- 
dious and  diffuse  character,"^"  yet  containing  much 
good. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  poems  of  Ossian,  which 
began  with  the  year  1760,  was  an  apparent  intro- 
duction to  these  studies.  Ossian  seized  like  a  flash 
of  lightning  upon  the  fantasy  of  the  German  poets, 
and  as  they  knew  not  the  distinction  between  Celt 
and  German,  he  passed  for  an  Old-German  bard. 
Counterparts  to  these  poems  were  believed  to  be 
found  in  the  Icelandic  lays,  and  the  latter  were  ac- 
tually studied  by  many  for  the  sake  of  drawing  from 
them  explanations  of  the  Ossianic  images  and 
names ; — they  were  studied,  and  the  ]N'orthern  My- 
tliology  became  known  and  admired  in  Germany. 
The  "  Edda  "  of  Eesenius  and  Bartholin's  "  Antiqui- 
ties "  had  been  published ;  Mallet's  work  was  trans- 

*  1.  "  Abliandhmg  von  den  Freidenkern  tinter  den  alten  deutscli- 
en  und  nordisclien  Volkeru."     Leipsig,  1*748,  8vo. 

2.  "  Exercitationimi  ad  Germaniam  sacram  gentilem  facientium 
sylloge."     lb,,  Svo. 

3.  "  Lehrbegriff  der  alten  deutechen  und  nordisclien  Volker  von 
doni  Zustande  der  Seelen  naeh  dem  Tode."     lb.,  1*750,  Svo. 

4.  "  Schutzschriften  fiir  die  alten  nordischen  und  deutschen  V5l- 
ker,  2ten  Bandes  Iste  Sararalung."  lb.,  1*752.  This  work  contains 
a  chapter  of  "Proofs  that  the  Ancient  Northern  and  Germanic 
People  had  far  more  Reasonable  Principles  in  their  Religion  than 
the  Greeks  and  Romans." 


30 


INTRODUCTION. 


latecl  in  ITGo,  and  in  ITGG  Gerstenberg  s  ''  Letters  on 
the  Curiosities  of  Literature"  and  ''Poems  of  a 
Skald  "  introduced  the  gods  of  the  Okl-Xorth  into 
German  Literature.  Then  the  so-called  "  Bardic 
School "  took  possession  of  them,  and  gave  to  the 
literature  a  new  direction,  as  Klopstock,  in  his 
"  Ilermannschlacht'- (1769),  and  the  "Bardic  Odes" 
(1791),  Denis  in  "  The  Songs  of  Sined  the  Bard  " 
(1772),  and  Kretschmann,  as  the  "  Barde  Ehin- 
gulph."  Denis  attempted  the  translation  of  some 
of  the  Eddaic  poems,  but  Herder  first  successfully 
opened  the  way  by  his  translation  of  the  "  Yegtams- 
kvi5a'' and  "Yoluspa,"  in  1773,  and  the  "Euiiic 
Chapter,"  in  1779.  After  Herder,  Grater  appeared 
as  the  chief  apostle  of  the  Northern  Gods,  and  labored 
in  their  cause  with  great  zeal,  but  without  deep  in- 
sight. On  the  other  hand,  there  arose  a  band  of 
skeptics  with  Schlozer  at  their  head.  He  denied 
the  genuineness  of  the  mythologic  sources,  declar- 
ing them  to  be  the  productions  of  later  times,  and 
their  contents  worthless  fictions.  After  him  cam  e  Ade- 
lung,  who  declared  "  the  whole  Old-Scandinavian  re- 
ligion to  be  an  imitation  of  Christianity,  more  or  less 
obscm-ed  by  monstrous  images  and  unknown  allu- 
sions, and  decorated  with  Grecian  or  Eoman  ideas." 
But  Adelung,  though  a  distinguished  philologist  for 
his  time,  was  inexj^erienced  in  this  field  of  learning, 
and  still  more  so  was  Delius,  who  repeated  him, 
and  wrote  against  the  Edda  witliout  having  read  it. 
Bulls  stood  higher  than  both,  and,  besides,  did  much 
to  spread  the  study  of  ]N"orthern  literature  in  Ger- 
many.    In  his  arguments  against  it  he  not  only  de- 


INTRODTJCTION.  31 

clared  the  Icelandic  poetry  and  mythology  to  be 
monkish  fictions,  but  traced  them  in  a  very  positive 
manner  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

As  it  usually  happens  in  such  matters,  these  ne- 
gations had  a  positive  effect,  and  served  only  to  call 
attention  to  the  Eddas  and  other  productions  of  the 
Icelanders,  and  in  proportion  as  the  real  character 
and  contents  of  these  works  became  known,  the 
apparent  evidence  against  their  genuineness  disap- 
peared. The  study  of  Il^orthern  Antiquities  became 
freed  from  the  one-sided  views  of  its  commentators 
■ — of  the  historical  believer,  the  mythic  interpreter, 
or  the  skeptic, — and  under  the  impartial  spirit  of 
the  Mneteenth  century,  it  rose  to  importance  as  an 
independent  department  of  learning.  It  opened  a 
wide  field  of  research,  which  the  philosophic  spirit 
of  the  age  has  entered  upon  and  found  to  be  rich 
and  productive.  Philology  was  enriched  by  the 
ample  materials  here  presented,  and  in  return  the 
new  progress  made  in  philology  threw  much  light 
on  the  researches  of  antiquaries.  The  Old-Xorse 
lano^iia^e  was  more  thorouo^hlv  examined,  its  nature 
and  properties  became  better  known,  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Swedish  and  Danish,  as  well  as  the  Ger- 
manic languages  generally,  was  more  critically  es- 
tablished. In  this  field  the  name  of  Eask  stands 
preeminent.  His  great  learning,  his  zeal  and  en- 
ergy, and  the  multitude  and  variety  of  his  labors, 
are  too  well  known  to  be  enlarged  upon  here. 

Another  means  by  which  these  antiquarian  stu- 
dies were  enlightened,  was  a  thorough,  judicious, 
and   comprehensive    criticism  of   the    sources    of 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

mythic  learning,  with  regard  to  age  and  intrinsic 
value.  Tlie  honor  of  applying  a  thoroughly  histori- 
cal criticism  of  this  kind  to  the  mythologic  and  his- 
toric literature  of  Iceland  belongs  to  P.  E.  Miiller. 
By  his  critical  investigations  into  the  origin  and 
genuineness  of  the  old  manuscripts,  he  decided  upon 
the  antiquity  and  authenticity  of  the  Eddas,  ascer- 
tained and  established  the  time  of  writinoj  and  the 
reliability  of  the  Sagas,  some  of  tliem  with  irrefuta- 
ble certainty,  some  with  great  probability,  and 
lastly,  he  thoroughly  examined  the  sources  from 
wdiich  the  two  great  historical  writers  drew  their 
materials,  and  thus  fixed  the  significance  and  value 
of  their  works."^' 

These  researches  were  also  greatly  facilitated  by 
the  continued  publication,  translation,  and  exj)lana- 
tion  of  original  matter,  which,  by  means  of  the  philo- 
sophic agencies  above-mentioned,  became  more  cer- 
tain, speedy,  and  extensive,  and  in  every  respect 
more  universal.  The  eflbrts  of  anticparies  were 
now  directed  more  especially  to  the  publication 
of  all  the  sources  of  JsTorthern  Mythology,  as 
well  as  a  complete  collection  of  the  Old-Ice- 
landic literature.  In  this  de2)artment  the  labor 
was  carried  f )rward  by  JSTyerup,  Adlerbeth,  Wer- 
lauff,  the  younger  Thorlacius,  and  somewhat  later 
by  Eask,  Afzelius,  Liljegren,  and  others.  The 
Arna-Magn«?an  Commission  also  continued  to  labor 
on  successfully,  but  a  new  era  was  begun  in  this 

*  In  liis  "Asnl.TTO,"  "Sagnbibliothek,"  1S17,  "Critiske  Under- 
sogelse  nf  Danmarks  og  Norgos  Sagnhistorie,"  1823,  etc.,  <fcc.  He 
died  in  1834,  as  Bishop  of  Sealand. 


iNTRODUCTION. 


3B 


respect,  by  the  formation  of  tlie  "  Society  of  Kortli- 
ern  Antiquaries." 

The  foundation  of  this  Society  was  laid  in  1824, 
by  a  nnmber  of  the  friends  of  Icelandic  literature, 
who  united  together  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
publication  of  the  yet  unprinted  manuscripts.  The 
Society  was  to  publish  annually  a  threefold  volume, 
namely :  in  the  original  text ;  in  a  Latin  translation, 
with  critical  notes  and  explanations  for  the  use  of 
philologists  and  antiquaries ;  and  a  Danish  transla- 
tion for  the  common  reader.  The  undertaking  met 
with  general  approbation,  many  learned  men  pro- 
mised their  cooperation,  and  by  the  1st  of  January, 
182o,  a  permanent  "  Society  of  Korthern  Antiqua- 
ries" (XorroenaFornfrsgSa  Felag),  consisting  of  fifty- 
nine  members,  was  established. 

The  Society  undertook,  in  the  first  place,  a  com- 
plete edition  of  the  Sagas,  to  be  collected  under 
three  different  heads,  viz. :  1.  "Fornmanna  Sogur," 
or  the  Historical  Sagas  recording  events  out  of  Ice- 
land ;  2.  "  Islendinga  Sogur,"  or  the  Sagas  record- 
ing events  in  Iceland ;  and  3.  "  Fornaldar  Sogur," 
containing  all  the  mythico-historical  Sagas  record 
ing  events  of  the  period  before  the  colonization  of 
Iceland  ;  the  latter  to  embrace  "  Fornald.  S.  ]^or5r- 
landa,"  or  those  relating  to  the  Xorth  ;  "  Fornald.  S. 
Su5rlanda,"  or  those  relating  to  Southern  lands  ;  and 
"  Kappa  Sogur  ok  Eiddara,"  or  Heroic  and  Chival- 
ric  Legends.  At  the  same  time  they  established 
a  "Journal  of  Historical  and  Philological  Trans- 
actions." 
This  was  the  most  important  step  that  lias  been 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

taken  in  Northern  Archaeology.  The  Society  has 
continued  to  flourish,  and  has  accomplished  much 
by  its  labors.  It  is  in  friendly  cooperation  with 
the  Arna-Magna3an  Commission,  and  through  their 
joint  labors  all  the  important  literature  of  the  Old- 
Xorth  will  doubtless  be  brought  before  the  world. 

The  great  success  of  this  Society  incarrying  for- 
ward the  objects  of  its  formation,  especially  in  the 
publication  of  the  old  literature  in  the  original  text 
and  in  translations,  has  been  mainly  owing  to  the 
indefatigable  labors  of  its  learned  Secretary,  Pro- 
fessor C.  C.  Eafn,  who,  with  enthusiastic  love  of 
Scandinavian  Antiquity,  devotes  his  energies  to  the 
restoration  of  its  literary  monuments. 

In  the  mean  time,  as  the  study  of  J^orthern  Anti- 
quities was  extended,  a  countless  number  and  vari- 
ety of  works  appeared  on  the  subject,  both  in  Ger- 
many and  in  the  Xorth.  The  mythic  and  lieroic 
Sagas  were  treated  of  and  variously  explained,  nu- 
merous journals  appeared,  w^hich  were  wholly  or 
partially  devoted  to  subjects  of  Archaeology,  and 
the  material  of  the  Eddas  and  Sagas  were  seized 
upon  by  poets  and  artistically  wrought  out  into 
beautiful  and  attractive  forms.  Thus  a  knowledge 
of  the  heathen  gods  became  impressed  upon  the 
people,  and  the  name  of  Odin  was  again  heard  as 
far  and  as  frequently  as  in  former  days,  when  pro- 
nounced by  the  lips  of  his  worshipers. 

Among  the  mythological  works  of  this  period,  we 
may  mention  Creutzer's  "Symbolik,-'  Gori-es'  ^'My- 
thic History,"^'  Kanne's  ''  Pantheon,''  Mone's  "  His- 

*  "  >rythengo?cliiclilc  ^cr  nlt'.-u  yS\-]\"  1810. 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

toiy  of  Heathendom  in  I^ortliern  Europe,"^  and 
otliers  in  Germany  and  in  Denmark.  Finn  Magnn- 
sen's  great  work,  "  The  Eddaic  Doctrines  and  their 
Origin,"f  wades  through  a  labyrinth  of  specu- 
Lations  in  his  attempts  to  explain  the  Eddaic  doc- 
trines by  the  phenomena  of  nature.  Yet  with  all 
its  extravagances  this  work  displays  great  research, 
and  is  a  great  addition  to  the  list  of  mythological 
books.  Finn  Magnusen  was  a  profound  scholar, 
and  he  made  many  valuable  contributions  to  anti- 
quarian knowledge.  An  excellent  work  of  that 
time,  is  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Icelandic  Litera- 
ture and  its  History  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  by  A.  O. 
Lindfors,:}:  a  handbook  which  presents  a  faithful 
view  of  the  whole  Icelandic  literature.'  Handbooks 
.on  all  subjects  began  to  prevail  with  the  close  of 
the  last  century ;  and  in  time  handbooks,  or  com- 
pendiums  of  such,  w^ere  not  wanting  on  the  Mytho- 
logy of  the  North.  In  Denmark  appeared  Gnmdt- 
vig's  "  Northern  Mythology,"§  which  is  celebrated 
especially  for  its  poetic  tinge;  in  Sweden,  Geijer's 
"Primitive  History  of  Sweden,"!  which,  in  its  pre- 
sentation of  the  Mythic  Lays,  treats  the  subject  in  a 
learned  and  dispassionate  manner.  Nyerup  and 
Finn  Magnusen  produced  Mythological  Lexicons, 

*  "  Gesehichte  des  Heidentlnims  im  nordlichen  Europa,"  2  vols., 
1822,  a  work  of  great  research,  but  which  distorts  the  Eddaic  My- 
thology by  its  interpretations. 

f  "Eddalseren  og  dens  Oprindelse,"  4  Bd.    Ivjbnh.  1824-26. 

jj.  "  luledning  till  Isliindska  Litteraturen  och  dess  Ilistoria  under 
Medeltiden,"  af  And.  Otto  Lindfors.     Lund.  1824. 

§  "Nordens  Mythologi,  eller  Udsigt  over  Eddalaeren." 

II  "Svea-Rikes  Hiifder." 


oG  INTRODUCTION. 

the  former  a  brief  summary,-  tlie  latter  a  compre- 
hensive Thesauriis-t  ITyernp's  "  Sketch  of  the 
History  of  Mythological  Studies,":!:  an  Introductory 
to  his  Lexicon,  is  an  excellent  guide  to  that  his- 
tory.! 

The  subjects  of  old  Myths  and  Sagas  have 
been  a  prolific  theme  for  the  pen  of  the  modern 
poets  of  the  ISTorth,  but  to  take  note  of  the  numerous 
versions  of  them  that  have  appeared,  would  carry 
ns  beyond  the  limits  of  a  simple  sketch  of  the  Res- 
toration of  the  Old-Icelandic  literature.  We  shall 
merely  refer,  in  j)assing,  to  the  names  of  the  two 
highest  representatives  of  this  department  of  mod- 
ern literature,  that  of  Oehlenschliiger,  in  Denmark, 
and  of  Tegner,  in  Sweden,  whose  works  are  an  illus- 
tration of  the  rich  fruits  that  have  been  gathered 
by  the  modern  muse  from  the  fields  of  Mythic  His- 
tory. Through  the  prolific  pen  of  the  one,  the  "  Gods 
of  the  Xortli"  have  been  re-animated,  and  they 
come  forth  to  breathe  a  new  and  higher  life  than 

*  "  "Wiirterbucli  der  Scaudinavischen  Mythologic."  Kopenh. 
181G. 

f  'TriscTO  veterum  Borealiuni  M^^thologia;  Lexicon."  ITafnia^j 
1828. 

\.  "  LTobersiclit  der  Gcscliichte  desStudiumsder  Scandinavischcn 
Mythologie." 

g  Innumerable  Compendiums  appeared  in  Germany  also,  suoli 
as:  Scheller's  "Mythologie  der  Nordischen  n.  a.  Deutsehen  Vol. 
ker"  Regensb.  1816;  Bergner's  "Nord.  Mythol.  nach  d.  Quellen,'> 
Leipz,  182G;  Yiilpius'  "  Hand worlorbncli  der  Mythol.  der  Deutsch. 
en  11.  verwandten  Nord.  Vulker,"  Lpzg.  18'ie'>;  Tkdny's  "  Deutsche 
Mythol.  Lexicon."  Zuaim.  1827;  llachnieistor's  "Xord.  ^Mythol." 
Hannover,  1832,  and  others. 


INTEODUCTION.  37 

they  knew  of  old,  even  as  the  destinies  had  foretold 
of  them  in  the  morning  of  Time,  while  the  other 
stands  as  the  Iligh-prieslr  of  Baldiir  at  the  entrance 
of  his  Sacred  Grove,  and  in  his  glorions  song  pours 
forth  the  genial  inspiration  of  the  "  Beautiful  God." 
We  shall  conclude  this  chapter  with  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  movements  of  the  present  day  in  the  depart- 
ment of  jCSTorthern  Antiquities,  together  with  the 
names  of  some  of  the  works  accessible  to  the  gene- 
ral reader.  The  Antiquarian  Society  of  Copen- 
hagen has  been  mentioned,  with  a  brief  allusion  to 
its  plans.  Similar  associations  exist  in  the  other 
countries  of  Scandinavia.  The  Swedish  Antiqua- 
rian Society  of  Stockholm,  under  the  direction  of 
Arwidsson,  Hylten-Cavallius,  Geo.  Stevens,  Esq., 
and  others,  began  in  1844:  the  publication  of  a  se- 
ries of  the  Middle- age  legends  in  the  Old-Swedish 
branch  of  the  language,  of  which  about  twenty  num- 
bers have  appeared,  and  in  Christiania  an  associa- 
tion of  learned  men,  with  Professors  Munch,  Key- 
ser,  and  linger  at  its  head,  has  produced,  within  a 
few  years,  some  valuable  publications,  such  as  the 
Edda,  the  Saga  of  Olaf  the  Saint,  and  others,  in  the 
original  text.  One  of  these,  the  "  King's  Mirror," 
is  interesting  as  the  most  important  01d-]N'orse  work 
written  in  Korway.  An  excellent  translation  of 
the  Ileimskringla  has  appeared,  and  many  other 
works  of  great  value  to  the  antiquarian  and  philo- 
logist. Professor  Munch  is  now  engaged  on  a  His- 
tory of  Norway,  a  work  displaying  profound  ethno- 
logical research  in  the  numbers  already  published, 
which  treat  upon  the  primitive  history  of  the  Xorth. 
3 


38  INTRODUCTIOX. 

Returning  to  Denmark,  we  will  read  a  list  of  the 
publications  of  the  ''  Eoyal  Society  of  Northern  An- 
tiquaries," which   are  a   noble   monument   of  the 
learning  and  industry  of  Professor  Eafn. 
Fornmanna  Sogur,  or  the  Historical  Sagas  record- 
ing events  out  of  Iceland,  in  the  original  Icelan- 
dic text ;  complete  in  12  vols.   8vo.,  with  6  Fac- 
similes. 
Scripta  Historica  Islandorum,  ttc,  the  same  in  Latin 

by  Sveinbiorn  Egilsson.     12  vols.  8vo. 
Oldnordiske  Sagaer,  the  same  in   Modern  Danish. 

12  vols.  8vo. 
Fornaldar  Sogur  Nor5rlanda,  a  complete  collection 
of  the  mythico-historical  Sagas  recording  events 
assignable  to  the  j^eriod  anterior  to  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Iceland,  in  the  Old-Norse  text,  edited  by 
C.  C.  Eafn.  3  vols.  Svo. 
JSTordiske  Fortids  Sagaer,  the  same  translated  into 

Modern  Danish,  by  C.  C.  Eafn.     3  vols.  Svo. 
Krakumal,  sive  Epicedium  Eagnaris  Lodbroci  Ee- 
gis  Dania3 ;  Ode  on  the  Heroic  Deeds  and  Death 
of  the  Danish  King  Eagnar  LoSbrok  in  England, 
in  the  original  text,  and  ia  Modern  Danish,  Latin, 
and  French,  with  Critical  and  Explanatory  Notes, 
edited  by  C.  C.  Eafn.     Svo. 
Fsereyinga  Saga,  or  the  history  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Faroe  Islands,  in  Icelandic,  the  Faroe  dia- 
lect, and  Danish,  with  map,  edited  by  C.  C.  Eafn. 
Svo, 
The  same  in  German,  by  G.  Monike. 
Islendinga  Sogur,  or  the  Historical  Sagas  recording 
events  in  Iceland  itself.     2  vols.  Svo.,  with  map 
and  10  Fac-similes. 


INTEODIJCTION.  89 

Historiske  Fortsellinger  om  Islasndernes  Fserd ;  the 
Icelandic  Sagas  translated  into  Danish  by  K.  M. 
Petersen.     4  vols.  8vo. 

Gronland's  Historiske  Mindesmaerker ;  or  Green- 
land's Historical  Monuments,  a  Collection  of  the 
Sagas  relating  to  the  Discovery,  Settlement,  and 
History  of  Greenland,  in  the  original  text,  with  a 
Danish  translation,  introduction,  and  explanatory 
remarks,  complete  in  3  vols.,  with  12  plates. 

Antiquitates  Americance  sive  Scriptores  Septentrio- 
nales  Rermn  Ante-Columbianarnm  in  America, 
opera  et  studio  Caroli  G.  Rafn,  with  14  plates  and 
4  maps.     Imp.  4to.  pp.  526. 

Tidsskrift  for  Nordisk  Oldkyndighed,  Historical  and 
Philological  Transactions.     2  vols.  1  plate. 

JSTordisk  Tidsskrift  for  Oldkyndighed,  Archceological 
Transactions.     3  vols.  9  plates. 

Annaler  for  Nordisk  Oldkyndighed,  Annals  of 
Northern  Archaeology^  1836-53,  with  numerous 
plates. 

Annaler  for  JN'ordisk  Oldkyndighed  og  Historic, 
Annals  of  Northern  Archceology  and  History^ 
1846  to  date,  with  plates. 

Antiquarisk  Tidsskrift,  Archceological  Review.,  1845 
to  date,  with  plates. 

Memoires  de  la  Societe  Eoyale  du  ^N'ord,  1836-47. 
3  vols.  30  plates. 

Besides  "J.  Guide  to  Northern  Archeology ^'^  in 
English  and  frequent  bulletins  in  Danish,  Ger- 
man, French,  and  English. 

Among  the  numerous  works  in  Germany,  the 
well  known  works  of  Grimm  are  first  in  importance. 


4:0  INTRODUCTION. 

A  translation  of  the  Eddas  by  Karl  Simrock, 
which  was  published  in  1851,  is  the  most  faithful 
and  spirited,one  that  has  been  made.  In  its  form, 
in  preserving  the  alliterative  rhymes,  and  in  sim- 
plicity and  spirit,  it  is  the  best  that  has  appeared  in 
any  language.  In  connection  with  this  subject  is 
a  small  handbook  of  German  Mythology  '^"  by  J.  W. 
Wolf,  and  a  Journal  devoted  to  German  Mythology 
and  the  History  of  Culture,t  has  just  been  estab- 
lished by  him  in  Gottingen,  which  has  the  names  of 
Grimm,  Zingerle,  Plonnies,  &c.  among  its  contribu- 
tors. 

England  and  France  have  also  produced  some 
works  in  this  department  of  l^orthern  Antiquities, 
but  they  are  wanting  in  that  depth  and  originality 
which  characterize  the  productions  of  the  German 
and  Scandinavian  writers. 

A  small  work  entitled  "Chants  Populaires  du 
Nord,"  (Paris  1842,)  contains  a  translation  of  some 
of  the  Eddaic  lays,  in  connection  with. a  few  of  the 
popular  legends  of  other  countries  of  the  North. 
An  excellent  work  bearing  on  tliis  subject  is  "A 
Sketch  of  the  Literature  of  the  North  in  the  Middle 
Ages,"  by  Eichhoff.  X 

In  England  we  have  Cottle's  translation  of  the 
Edda,  §  a  work  of  the  last  century,  which  entirely 

*  "Die  Deutsche  Gotterlehre."     Gottingen,  1852. 

f  "Zeitschrift  fur  Deutsche  Mjthologie  und  Sittengeschiohte," 
edited  by  J.  W.  Wolf.     Gottingen. 

X  "Tableau  de  la  Litterature  du  ISord  au  Aloyen  Age,  en  Alle- 
magne  et  en  Angleterre,  en  Scandinavie  et  en  Sclavonic,"  par  F. 
G.  Eichhoflf.     Paris,  1853. 

§  "The  Edda  of  S^mund,"  «tc.,  by  A.  9.  Coltle.     London,  1797, 


INTEODIJCTION.  41 

fails  in  representing  the  spirit  of  the  Eddaic  poetry, 
and  Percy's  ''Mallet's  Introduction,"  which,  with 
additional  chapters  by  Blackwell,  and  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  Abstract  of  the  Eyrbyggja  Saga,  has  been 
published  in  Bohh's  ''Antiquarian  Library,"  and  thus 
placed  within  the  reach  of  every  one.  The  "  Sup- 
plementary Cha2:)ters"  contain  much  valuable  in- 
formation respecting  the  literature  and  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Old-Icelanders,  drawn  from 
Danish  authorities,  but  the  author  continually  be- 
trays a  disposition  to  frivolity,  as  though  it  was  a 
subject  not  w^orthy  of  his  serious  investigation,  but 
one  which  you  found  him  engaged  in  by  way  of 
pastime.  "  A  Manual  of  Scandinavian  Mythology ' 
by  Grenville  Pigott  (London  1839),  makes  a  favora- 
ble presentation  of  the  subject,  in  which,  however, 
the  author  has  not  drawn  very  deeply  from  original 
sources.  Ilowitt^  "Literature  and  Romance  of 
Scandinavia"  (London  1852)  is  a  j)leasant  indicator 
to  the  general  literature  of  the  ISTorth,  in  which  the 
Old-Icelandic  is  represented  by  numerous  extracts 
from  the  Eddas  and  some  of  the  Sagas. 

In  this  brief  outline  much  has  been  necessarily 
omitted,  in  order  to  bring  within  our  limits  a  gene- 
ral view  of  the  Pestoration  and  Publication  of  Ice- 
landic literature ;  but  enough  has  been  said,  we 
hope,  to  enkindle  a  desire  in  many  to  extend  their 
researches  into  this  field,  which  offers  a  bountiful 
harvest  to  the  Philologist  and  the  Antiquarian,  and 
is  full  of  interest  to  the  enlightened  lover  of  litera- 
ture. 


42  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   EDDAS    AND    SAGAS    OF    ICELAND. 

The  Icelandic  poems  wliicli  Brynjulf  Sveinsson 
found  in  1643,  and  gave  tlie  name  of  "  Edda,"  were 
collected  and  written  down  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century  by  Ssemund,  a  learned  Icelander. 
They  had  existed  before  in  the  mouths  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  had  thus  been  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  perhaps  for  centuries.  They 
are  evidently  the  product  of  various  ages  in  a  re- 
mote antiquity,  but  nearer  than  this  we  can  decide 
nothing  in  regard  to  their  origin.  These  poems  dif- 
fer much,  not  only  in  age  and  value,  but  also  in 
their  contents.  In  the  latter  respect  they  may  be 
classed  under  two  heads :  the  Mythological  and  the 
Ej>ic^  although  few  of  them  are  either  purely  epic 
or  mythological.  The  Ethical  poems,  only,  may  be 
separated  from  the  mythological,  and  taken  as  a 
distinct  class.  The  poems  of  the  mythological  part 
are  naturally  the  most  important  for  us.  They  are 
either  general  or  special  in  their  subject  matter, 
that  is,  some  embrace  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
whole  field  of  Northern  Mythology,  while  others 
are  limited  to  a  single  group*of  legends,  or  to  a  sin- 


mTRODUCTION.  43 

gle  divinity.  To  the  former  belong  especially  the 
CosmogoniG  and  Theogonic  lays,  as  in  these  the 
mythic  Universe  of  the  Old-Scandinavians  is  pre- 
sented in  its  miity  and  completeness.  Of  these 
there  are  three,  as  follows : 

1.  Yoluspa — The  Veda's  Prophecy — may  be  re- 
garded, both  from  its  manner  and  matter,  as  one  of 
the  oldest  poetic  monuments  of  the  North.  In  ex- 
treme simplicity,  deep  significance,  and  mythic  uni- 
versality, it  is  comparable  to  Ilesiod's  Theogony, 
hence  it  has  long  held,  very  justly,  the  first  place 
among  the  Eddaic  lays.  The  Seeress,  who  isintro- 
duced  speaking,  imveils  the  whole  history  of  the 
mythic  Universe.  Beginning  with  primeval  time, 
she  goes  through  every  period  of  its  development 
down  to  the  The  Twilight  of  the  Gods  and  Baldur's 
second  birth. 

The  poem  is  in  many  places  somewhat  obscure, 
the  changes  abrupt,  in  accordance  with  the  commu- 
nication of  the  Yala,  and  there  are  also  traces  of 
later  Christian  interpolations. 

2.  QYimm^mil-^Grimnir' s  Speech  or  Song — be- 
gins with  a  preface  (formali)  in  prose,  in  which  it  is 
related  that  Odin,  under  the  name  of  Grimnir,  visit- 
ed his  foster-son  Geirro5,  and  the  latter,  deceived 
by  a  false  representation  of  Friga,  takes  him  for  a 
sorcerer,  makes  him  sit  between  two  fires  and  pine 
there  without  nourishment  for  eight  days,  until 
Agnar,  the  King's  son,  reaches  him  a  drinking  horn. 
Hereupon  Grimnir  sings  the  song  which  bears  his 
name.  Lamenting  his  confinement  and  blessing 
Agnar,  he  goes  on  to  picture  in  antitheses  the  twelve 


4-1:  INTRODUCTION. 

abodes  of  the  Gods  and  the  splendors  of  Valhalla, 
which  he  describes  at  length,  then  speaks  of  the 
mythic  World-Tree  Yggdrasill,  and  adds  many 
other  cosmological  explanations. 

3.  Yaf f)rii5nismal —  Vafthrudni'r^s  Song^  relates 
the  contest  between  Odin  and  the  Jotun  Yafthrud- 
nir.  Many  cosmological  questions  are  here  pro- 
pounded. Odin  asks  concerning  the  Creation  of  the 
Earth,  the  Origin  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  Day  and 
Night,  Summer  and  Winter,  &c.,  also  the  Jotuns, 
the  Yanir,  and  the  things  beyond  the  Twilight  of 
the  Gods,"" 

The  language,  the  narration,  the  train  of  thought, 
are  extremely  simple.  The  Jotun  loses  in  the  con- 
test, as  a  matter  of  course. 

In  their  clothing  the  two  latter  belong  to  the 
cycle  of  Odinic  Myths,  although  they  are  strictly 
cosmogonical  in  their  subjects.  It  is  thus  with 
many  of  the  poems,  that  they  are  in  some  respects 
quite  independent,  yet  are  in  some  manner  con- 
nected with  others  in  groups. 

*^*  The  poems  relating  to  Baldur's  death  are  of 
a  general  character,  for  as  Baldur  is  himself  "  the 
Band  in  the  Wreath  of  Yalhalla,"  the  central  life 
of  all  Asgard,  so  do  the  lays  in  which  his  death  is 
foretold  or  lamented,  have  a  direct  reference  to  the 
Fall  of  the  Gods  and  of  the  mythic  Universe.  In 
them  the  background  is  always  the  Twilight  of  the 

*  The  final  destruction  of  the  world  and  regeneration  of  the 
Goda  and  men  in  the  Old-Norse  Mythology  is  called  Ragna-rokkr 
—the  Twilight  of  the  Gods. 


INTRODUCTION.  45 

Gods ;  they  might  therefore  be  called  aiiti-cosmo- 
gonical.     They  are  likewise  three  in  number,  viz. : 

4.  Ilrafna-galldr  05ins — the  llaven-Cry  of  Odin^ 
which  is  wild  and  obscure,  the  most  unintelligible 
of  the  Eddaic  poems.  Only  this  much  is  clear,  that 
in  it  is  portrayed  the  unrest  and  anxiety  of  the 
^sir  at  the  approaching  death  of  Baldur.  Tor- 
tured by  forebodings  of  evil  they  vainly  seek  coun- 
sel and  aid  of  all  Xature  and  in  all  Worlds. 

5.  Yegtams-kvi5a — the  Wanderers  Lay^  is  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  foregoing,  but  it  is  as 
simple  as  that  is  confused  and  intricate.  The  AYan- 
derer  is  Odin.  In  order  to  arrive  at  certainty 
concerning  the  portentous  future  of  the  Gods,  he 
descends  to  JSTifiheim,  goes  into  the  abodes  of  Hel, 
and  calls  up  from  the  grave  a  long-departed  Yala, 
in  order  to  learn  from  her  the  fate  of  Baldur.  She 
listens  to  him  indignantly,  ansvv^ers  his  questions 
unwillingly,  but  at  last  discovers  the  King  of  the 
Gods,  and  in  anger  drives  him  away. 

6.  Loka-senna,  or  Loka-glepsa — LoMs  Quarrel, 
or  Lolci^s  Teeth-gnashing^  with  a  prose  introduction 
entitled  ^gis-drekka — JEgir^s  Dr hiking- Banquet, 
a  name  applicable  to  the  whole  poem.  Loki  re- 
viles the  ^sir,  who,  after  Baldiir's  death,  have 
assembled  at  a  banquet  with  JEgir  ;  he  attacks  in  a 
most  shameless  manner,  first  Bragi,  then  Iduna, 
Gefjon,  Odin,  Friga,  Freyja,  Njor5,  and  others, 
until  Thor  at  length  appears  and  drives  him  away. 
The  prose  conclusion  (eptirmali)  describes  his  pun- 
ishment. Loki-senna  is  a  genuine  heathen  poem ; 
its  undertone  is  deeply  tragic.     The  J^sir,  in  the 


46  INTEODUCnON. 

true  mytliologic  spirit,  are  far  from  angelic  purity. 
Tliey  fall  rather  by  their  own  fault  into  the  final 
catastrophe,  and  Loki,  although  usually  the  blas- 
phemer and  liar,  here  speaks  the  truth.  That 
"svhich  moves  in  the  "  Raven-Cry  of  Odin  "  as  a  dim 
foreboding,  now  appears  distinctly  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  Gods.  Peace  has  disappeared  with  Bal- 
dur,  and  the  fearful  distraction  w^hich  precedes  their 
downfall  has  overpowered  them.  The  inimitably 
beautiful  manner  in  which  all  this  is  portrayed, 
renders  the  poem  one  of  the  profoundest  and  best 
finished  of  the  Edda. 

"^■^  Tlien  follow  the  poems  relating  to  the  deeds 
of  Thor.  These  appear  to  have  been  a  favorite 
theme  of  the  Old-Northern  poets,  as  we  find  in 
many  poems  beside  those  of  the  Edda.  Among  the 
latter  are  the  following : 

7.  Hymis-kvi5a — the  Song  of  Hymir.  The  Gods 
of  Asgard  are  invited  to  a  banquet  with  the  Sea- 
God  ^gir.  Tlior  goes  to  the  Jotun  Ilymir  for  a 
huge  cauldron  in  which  to  brew  ale  for  the  occa- 
sion. He  persuades  the  giant  to  go  with  him  on  a 
fishing  excursion,  in  which  he  fishes  up  and  fights 
with  the  World-Serpent,  carries  off'  the  cauldron, 
and  finally  slays  IT^'^mer  and  other  giants  who  pur- 
sue him. 

8.  •J)ryms-kvi5a  or  Hamars-heimt — Thrynvs  Lay^ 
or  Bringing  the  Hammer.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
amusing  poems  of  the  Edda.  The  Giant  Thrym  has 
got  possession  of  Tlior's  hammer,  and  will  not  give 
it  up  unless  Fre}^a  will  consent  to  become  his  bride. 
The  Goddess  of  Love  refuses  of  course,  and  Loki 


INTRODUCTION. 


47 


persuades  Tlior  to  dress  up  in  Freyja's  clothes  and 
go  for  it  himself.  The  stratagem  succeeds.  Thor 
regains  possession  of  his  hammer,  and  with  it  kills 
the  Giant  Thrym  and  his  followers. 

9.  Harbar5s-lj65— Ha/'&ar5'5  Lay:  a  dialogue 
between  Thor  and  the  ferryman  Harbard,  who  re- 
fuses to  carry  him  over  a  stream.  This  furnishes 
an  occasion  for  each  of  them  to  recount  his  exploits. 
Harbar5  is  Odin,  and  it  appears  to  be  the  object  of 
the  poem  to  show  the  points  of  contrast  between 
Tlior  and  Odin,  and  thereby  express  more  definitely 
the  peculiar  attributes  of  each.  The  innate  differ- 
ence between  them  is  implied  by  the  river  that 
separates  them,  but  is  directly  expressed  in  the  con- 
trasted deeds  and  occupations  of  the  two  ;  for  while 
Thor  incessantly  fights  against  the  Jotuns,  Harbar5 
(Odin)  excites  Kings  and  Eulers  to  battle,  strikes 
down  warriors  and  kisses  the  maidens. 

10.  Mvi^-miX— Speech  of  Alvis  (the  All-Wise). 
Alvis,  a  Dwarf,  has  come  for  Thor's  daughter  as  his 
bride.  Thor  cunningly  detains  him  all  night  by 
asking  him  questions  concerning  the  various  worlds 
he  has  visited.  Alvis  answers  and  teaches  him  the 
names  by  which  the  most  important  things  in  Na- 
ture are  called  in  the  respective  languages  of  dif- 
ferent worlds,  of  men,  of  the  ^sir,  Yanir,  Jotuns, 
Elves,  Dwarves,  and  finally,  of  the  realms  of  the 
dead  and  of  the  Supreme  Gods.  The  dwarf,  being 
one  of  those  mythic  creations  which  cannot  endure 
the  light  of  day,  had  to  leave  without  accomplishing 
his  object. 

These  four  lays  relating  to  the  myths  of  Thor,  are 


48  INTRODUCTION. 

evidently  of  later  origin  tliau  tliosc  pre^iuLlsly 
named.  The  first  two  are  filled  with  poetic  ex- 
travagances not  jnst  adapted  to  the  theme,  such  as 
Thor's  great  alimentive  capacity ;  but  Harhar5slj66 
and  Alvismal  are  playful  and  witty,  and  the  latter 
is  quite  learned  and  philological,  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  later  productions  of  the  genuine  Scaldic 
poesy. 

11.  Skirnis-for — Shirnir''s  Journey^  is  one  of  the 
most  simple  and  beautiful  of  the  unconnected  my- 
thological poems.  In  the  form  of  a  dialogue  it 
gives  the  story  of  Frey  and  Ger5a,  of  his  love  to 
her,  and  his  w^ooing  her  through  the  agency  of  his 
faithful  attendant,  from  whom  the  poem  is  named. 

12.  Fjols-vinns-mal — Speech  of  the  Much-Know- 
er^  is  a  very  obscure  and  unintelligible  poem,  con- 
taining the  conversation  between  the  hero  Svipdag 
and  the  sentinel  of  Menglo5,  his  beloved,  who  for- 
bids him  to  enter.  The  former,  in  order  that  he 
may  not  be  recognized,  calls  himself  Fjolsvi5r : 
hence  the  name  of  the  poem. 

13.  IIyndlii-lj65 — ByndlcCs  Song^  forms  the  tran- 
sition to  the  epic  poems.  Freyja  gets  the  giantess 
Hyndla  to  trace  the  genealogy  of  Ottar,  her  favor- 
ite, in  which  is  given  the  descent  of  nearly  all  the 
races  of  Northern  heroes:  the  Skjuldunga,  the 
Ylfiinga,  the  Ynglinga,  &c. 

14.  Ilavamdl— the  Sjyeechof  the  High- 07ie{0([\\\\ 
is  a  collection  of  ethical  poems.  It  was  once  be- 
lieved, with  all  seriousness,  that  Odin  in  his  own 
high  person  had  composed  it.  The  Ildvamal  con- 
tains  precepts   for   daily  life,  prudential   maxims, 


INTRODUCTION.  49 

passages  of  experience,  (fcc.,  inwoven  with  mytholo- 
gical episodes.^  The  connection  of  the  several 
parts  is  very  loose,  yet  the  whole  may  be  divided 
into  four  principal  sections. 

Tlie  first,  of  a  purely  ethical  character,  embraces 
a  variety  of  rules  of  life,  full  of  patriarchal  simpli- 
city and  truth,  such  as  instructions  for  the  host  and 
traveler  (stroph.  1  to  35)  and  precepts  for  domestic 
life  and  the  household  (36-104:).  The  second  j^ctrt 
forms  an  episode  relating  how  Odin  obtained  the 
poetic  mead  from  Suttung  (105-111).  The  tJiird, 
L65fafnismal  (112-140)  appears  to  be  the  instruc- 
tions of  a  father  to  his  son  L65fafnir,  which  mostly 
consist  of  warnings  against  evil  company  and  vice, 
and  exhortations  to  hospitality.  The  Runic  Chap- 
ter— Runa  Kapituli  or  Runatals  J)attr  05ins — forms 
the  conclusion,  and  contains,  as  the  nam.e  implies, 
instruction  in  runic  lore. 

15.  The  Eigsmal  is  a  mythic-ethnologic  poem, 
which  with  antique  simplicity  gives  the  origin  of 
three  distinct  Castes  in  Society — the  thralls,  the 
middle  classes,  and  the  nobles.  The  God  Heim- 
dall,  the  Warder  of  Heaven,  wanders  ov6r  the 
earth,  when  but  a  few  of  the  immediate  offspring  af 
the  first  pair  are  yet  scattered  over  its  surface.  He 
is  hospitably  entertained  first  by  an  humble  pair 
called  Ai  and  Edda  (Great  Grandfather  and  Great 
Grandmother);  then  by  Afi  and  Amma  (Grand- 
father and  Grandmother),  who  are  in  better  circum- 
stances;   and  lastly  by  Fa5ir  and  Mo5ir  (Father 

*  See  Chap.  27,  Infra. 


50  LNTRODUCTION. 

and  Mother)  who  live  in  a  splendid  mansion.  The 
Deity  infuses  a  vital  energy  into  his  hosts,  and  af- 
terward Edda,  Ammo  and  Mo6ir  respectively  give 
birth  to  a  son,  the  offspring  of  the  God.  Edda's 
son  is  f)ra3l  (Thrall);  Amma's,  Karl  (a  vigorous, 
free-born  man);  and  Mo5ir's,  Jarl  (Noble).  They 
have  each  a  numerous  progeny.  The  descendants 
of  Thrsel  are  unsightly  of  countenance  and  deformed 
in  stature ;  they  have  uncouth  names,  and  are  des- 
tined to  toil  continually;  Karl's  descendants  are 
fair  and  seemly,  and  have  becoming  names ;  but 
the  nobles  are  described  in  glowing  terms  as  a  supe- 
rior race.  This  explanation  of  the  three  castes  gives 
evidence  of  the  aristocratic  spirit  which  prevailed 
in  Scandinavia  at  a  very  early  period. 

16.  Solar-lj65 — the  Sun  So?ig,  is  usually  reckoned 
among  the  Eddaic  lays.  It  is  a  Christian  poem, 
adorned  with  old-mythic  images  and  representa- 
tions. The  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  Heaven 
and  Hell,  angels  and  devils,  and  other  Christian 
personages  and  decorations  appear  in  it  and  suffi- 
ciently stamp  it  as  not  Eddaic;  yet  it  is  found 
among  the  collected  manuscripts. 

In  the  Epic  poems  of  the  Edda,  which  are  mostly 
of  later  origin  than  the  others,  the  old  Heroes 
of  the  North  step  forth  a  vigorous  and  primitive 
race,  who  move  in  a  sphere  no  less  noble  than  that 
of  the  gods,  but  less  limited  and  peculiar,  as  it  is  in 
a  great  measure  common  to  the  whole  Germanic 
literature. 

Of  this  class  there  is  a  series  of  twenty  Heroic 
Lays  forming   a   complete  Epos,  a  grand  Epic  in 


INTEODUCTION.  61 

twenty  cantos,  containing  the  tragic  story  of  the 
Yolsiinga  and  Kifliinga  races.  The  first  three  form 
a  distinct  group— the  Songs  of  Helgi,  the  great  hero 
of  the  Yolsiinga  race  who  is  peculiar  to  the  North- 
ern Saga  and  unknown  to  the  German.  In  true 
Homeric  power  these  lays  stand  before  all  other 
poetry  of  the  Edda,  and  in  the  love  between  Helgi 
and  Sigrun  there  breathes  an  enduring  mildness  and 
depth  of  feeling  that  is  scarcely  equalled  by  any. 

Helgi  brings  us  to  the  Yolsiingar,  whose  history 
re-appears,  although  in  a  much-altered  form,  in  the 
German  Heroic  Songs.  The  poems  in  which  it  ap- 
pears in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Niflun- 
gar  occupy  nearly  half  the  Edda.  Three  heroic 
races  figure  in  these  poems : — 1.  The  Yolsungar — 
the  most  celebrated,  are  the  descendants  of  Yolsung. 
His  son  is  Sigmund,  and  Sigmund's  sons  are  the 
famous  heroes  Sinfjotli,  Helgi,  Hamdir,  and  Sigurd 
(the  Germ.  Siegfried).  2.  The  Niflungar  (Nibelun- 
gen)  or  Gjukungar,  whose  ancestor  is  Gjuki  (the 
Germ.  Gibicli).  By  his  consort  Grimhild  he  has 
three  sons,  Gunnar  (Gunther),  Hogni  (Hagen),  and 
Guttorm  (Gemot),  and  the  daughter  Gu5run 
(Chrymhild).  3.  The  Bu51ungar,  children  of  Bu51i : 
Atli  (Etzel,  Attila),  Brynhild  and  Oddriin ;  and 
from  a  branch  of  these  three  families  appear  new 
mythic  forms,  not  of  the  heroic  class:  HreiSmar 
and  his  sons  Fafnir  and  Reginn. 

Sigurd,  the  hero  of  the  legend,  before  entering  on 
his  heroic  career,  rides  to  his  magic-skilled  uncle 
Gripir  and  learns  from  him  all  his  future  destiny 
uotil  his  death  by  the  Niflungar.     Afterward  Re- 


52  iNTRODircnoN. 

ginii  comes  to  Sigurd  at  the  Court  of  King  Hjal- 
prek  (Chilperic),  tells  liim  of  the  treasures  which 
the  ^sir  have  given  to  his  father  IIrei5mar  in  ex- 
piation for  a  murder,  and  which  his  brother  Fafnir 
lies  upon  to  guard,  in  the  guise  of  a  dragon.  He 
invites  Sigurd  to  tight  with  Fafnir  and  forges  for 
him  a  sword.  Sigurd  slays  the  dragon  after  he  has 
put  to  death  the  sons  of  Ilunding. 

Sigurd  enters  into  a  long  conversation  with  the 
dying  Fafnir  and  afterward  eats  his  heart,  whereby 
he  learns  the  language  of  birds,  and,  warned  by 
them,  he  kills  the  sleeping  Reginn.  Tlien  he  loads 
the  fatal  gold  upon  his  steed  and  rides  over  green 
ways  to  the  stronghold  of  Gjuki.  Before  his  arrival 
there  he  finds  Brynhild  as  a  Yalkyrja  in  a  fortress 
surrounded  by  flames.  He  releases  her  from  her 
enchanted  sleep,  and  learns  from  her  the  Eunic  lore 
and  other  useful  knowledge.  He  then  comes  to 
Gjuki,  marries  Gu5run,  and  by  artifice  conducts 
Brynhild  to  his  brother-in-law,  Gunnar,  as  his  bride. 
But  she  discovers  the  fraud,  and  at  her  instigation 
the  Yolstinga  hero  is  murdered  by  Guttorm,  the 
youngest  Xiflunga  brother.  She  then,  consumed 
by  grief,  stabs  herself  with  a  sword,  and  in  her 
dying  words  she  announces  to  the  Xiflunga  race  its 
tragic  fate.  The  bodies  of  Brynhild  and  Sigurd 
are  burned  upon  one  funeral  pile.  Afterward  Bryn- 
hild rides  to  the  lower  regions  where  she  holds  con- 
versation with  a  sorceress,  lliis  forms  the  subject 
of  one  of  the  poems  ; — Helrei5  Brynhildar  Bu51a- 
dottur — the  Death-ride  of  BrynMld  the  daughter  of 
Bu61i,  in  which  she  briefly  relates  her  history,  and 


INTRODUCTION.  53 

clears  herself  of  the  accusations  which  are  made 
against  her  concerning  the  murder  of  Sigurd. 

At  this  stage  the  Killungar,  who  had  hitherto 
played  only  a  secondary  part,  become  the  heroes  of 
the  tragedy,  and  their  destinies  are  celebrated  in  a 
series  of  touching  songs,  "which  shall  endure  so 
long  as  the  world  stands." 

28.  Gu5runarkvi5a  hin  fyrsta — the  First  Song  of 
Guhrun  depicts  her  grief  after  the  death  of  her 
husband,  and  the  vain  consolations  with  whicli 
she  was  assailed  by  her  kindred,  as  well  as  her 
journey  to  Denmark  and  other  events  of  her  widow- 
hood. 

29.  Drap  Nifliinga  or  Kiilunga  Lok — the  Deatli  of 
the  Niflungar — a  prose  fragment,  tells  of  the  feud 
which  broke  out  between  Atli  and  the  Gjiikungar, 
on  account  of  Brynhild's  death,  of  the  reconcilia- 
tion by  which  Atli  receives  Gu5run  as  his  wife, — 
her  consent,  being  obtained  only  by  means  of  a 
potion  of  forgetfulness,  and  of  Atli's  treachery  in 
murdering  Gunnar  and  Hogni. 

30.  The  Second  Song  of  Gu5run  relates  and  be- 
wails her  sad  fate.  After  a  brief  sketch  of  her 
youth,  she  alludes  to  Sigurd's  death  as  the  begin- 
ning of  her  sorrow^s,  then  speaks  of  her  stay  in  Den- 
mark, and  dwells  particularly  on  the  fact  that  she 
had  been  forced  by  the  magic  arts  of  Grimhild  to 
marry  Atli  against  her  inclination.  Finally  she  im- 
parts some  of  Atli's  ill-boding  dreams  and  her  inter- 
pretations of  them,  as  well  as  Atli's  declaration  that 
he  could  no  longer  sleep  in  peace  after  such  dreams- 

31.  In    the  third   Song  of   Gu5run   (Gu5runar- 


^  4:  nWRODUCTION . 

harmr — GuSrun's  Sorrows).  She  opens  her  griefs 
to  King  Theodoric  (f)j65rek),  who  sympathises  with 
her.  Then  she  is  accused,  by  Atli's  maid,  of  illicit 
intercourse  with  Theodoric,  but  clears  herself  by 
an  ordeal. 

32.  OddrxinaY-gvsitr—Ocld?'u?i's  Comjylaint  Od- 
driin,  Atli's  sister,  relates  her  history,  and  especially 
her  unhappy  love  to  Gumar  and  his  tragical  death. 

33.  Gunnars-slagr— 6^w;i7iar'5  Ilarp-stro'ke,  comes 
here  in  order.  Gunnar,  cast  into  the  den  of  ser- 
pents by  Atli's  command,  is  supposed  to  attune  his 
harp  and  with  it  soothe  all  the  vipers  to  sleep  ex- 
cept one— Atli's  mother.  In  this  song  Atli  is  ac- 
cused of  unjust  enmity  and  cruelty,  and  his  impend- 
ing evil  fate  is  foretold. 

3-i.  Atla-kvi5a,  and  35.  Atla-mal,  the  Songs  of 
Atli^  are  two  of  the  most  important  poems  of  the 
history,  especially  for  the  death  of  the  Nifiungar. 
They  relate  the  murder  of  Gunnar  and  Ilogni  by 
Atli,  and  Gu5run's  terrible  vengeance,  which  form 
the  second  chief  catastrophe  of  the  great  mythic 
tragedy.  GnSrun's  history  is  continued  through 
two  more  poems,  which  conclude  the  series.  They 
are: — 

36.  Ilamdis-mal— the  Lay  of  Ilamdir,  in  which 
Gu5run  incites  her  sons  Ilamdir  and  Sorli  to  take 
revenge  on  King  Jormunrek  (Ermanaricus),  who 
had  killed  her  daughter  Svanhild,  and  they  find- 
ing him  at  a  festival,  take  terrible  vengeance  upon 
him  and  his  followers ;  and, 

37.  Gu5runar-hvaut,  Guhrim''s  Summons ^contam- 
ing  her  call  for  vengeance  upon  the  cruel  murderer 


INTRODUCTION. 


55 


of  Svanliild,  and  her  lamentation  over  her  own  sor- 
rowful fate. 

The  main  features  of  this  mythic  history  are  the 
same  as  the  Nihelungen  Lied,  but  the  Scandinavian 
Epos  is  of  a  much  earlier  date  than  the  German,  the 
personages  are  more  mythological,  and  the  style  is 
less  pretending,  while  in  grandeur  and  simplicity  it 
far  surpasses  the  ;N'ibelungen. 

38.  The  yolundar-kvi5a  is  an  independent  Epic, 
narrating  the  tragic  adventures  of  that  skilliul 
smith  Yolund,  who  figures  in  so  many  legends  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  As  an  appendage  to  the  Epic 
poems  may  be  reckoned : — 

39.  (^YQ\\-g2S}i^x--Groah Incantation,^  conversa- 
tion between  the  Spirit  of  Groa  and  her  son,  who 
has  invoked  her,  in  which  she  communicates  magic 
blessings  to  attend  him  on  his  w^ay. 

40.  Grotta-saungr— (?r6i525i'5  Somj  sung  by  two 
Jotun-virgins,  Fenja  and  Menja,  whom  King  Fru5i, 
the  Peaceful,  had  bought  of  Fjolnir  in  Sweden,  and 
placed  in  the  magic  mill  Grotti,  to  turn  the  mill- 
stones. Fortune,  Peace,  and  Gold,  they  first  grind 
out  for  him,  but  afterward,  when  the  covetous  man 
will  not  allow  them  sleep  nor  rest,  the  mill  brings 
forth  curses,  swords,  and  a  hostile  army,  until  it 
bursts  at  last,  and  the  virgins  obtain  rest  for  them- 
selves. 

We  have  above,  a  faint  outline  of  the  series  of 

songs  and  poems  forming  that  venerable  relique  of 

•  antiquity,  which  the  Icelanders  themselves  called 

by  the  name  of  "  Grandmother,"  and  which  was  to 

the  Old-Scandinavians  what  the  Bible  was  to  the 


56 


INTKODUCTION. 


Heb^e^ys,  what  Homer  and  Hesiod  together -were  to 
the  Greeks.  It  is,  moreover,  the  only  complete  col- 
lection of  Icelandic  poetry  remaining, — the  only 
one  which  (except  two  fragments,  some  introductory 
pieces  and  interpolated  explanations)  consists  en- 
tirely of  poetry.  Whatever  else  has  come  down  to 
us  is  only  fragmentary  and  inserted  in  the  prose 
writings,  often  as  extracts  from  older  poems,  now  no 
longer  known,  except  from  these  fragments. 

The  Later  Edda  is  the  most  important  relic  of 
Icelandic  prose  with  regard  to  Mythology,  although 
it  is  by  no  means  the  oldest  monument  of  the  prose 
literature  of  the  JN'orth.  The  reputed  author  or 
compiler  was  Snorri  Sturlason,  and  it  is  supposed  to 
date  from  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century- 
There  are  three  manuscript  copies  of  it  extant.  One 
in  the  University  Library  of  Copenhagen,  which 
Arngrim  Jonsson  found  in  1628,  and  forwarded  to 
Wormius.  This  copy  is  the  fullest,  and  is  probably 
from  the  fifteenth  century.  The  second  is  in  the 
Eoyal  Library,  and  was  obtained  of  Brynjulf  Sveins- 
son  in  1640.  It  is  older  than  the  other,  evidently 
from  the  fourteenth  century.  The  third  is  in  the 
University  Library  at  Upsala,  and  was  brought  from 
Iceland  to  Sweden  by  J.  Eugman,  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  also  appears  to  be 
older  than  the  first-named  manuscript. 

The  contents  of  this  Edda  are  embraced  under 
three  principal  divisions,  viz  : — 

1.  Gylfa-ginning— the  Delusion  of  Gylfi,  which 
consists  of  fifty-four  stories,  or  chapters,  containing 
a  synopsis  of  the  whole  Scandinavian  Mythology.     It 


tNTRODUCTION.  5T 

is  clothed  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  the  mythic 
King  Gylfi  of  Sweden  and  the  ^sir  Har,  Jafnhar 
and  Thridji  (the  High^  the  Equally  Higli^  and  the 
Third).  It  is  mainly  derived  from  the  poetic  Edda, 
being  in  reality  little  else  than  a  paraphrase  of  the 
principal  mythic  poems  of  the  Edda  and  some  other 
lays,  joined  together  and  modified  by  the  explana- 
tions and  obscurations  of  the  Editor. 

2.  Braga-rse5r — Bragi's  Speech,  a  conversation 
between  the  god  of  Poetry  and  the  Sea-god  ^gir, 
in  which  the  former  relates  many  things  about  the 
deeds  and  destinies  of  the  gods,  as,  the  Eape  of 
Iduna,  the  Origin  of  Poetry,  &c.,  &c. 

3.  Kenningar — a  collection  of  poetic  denomina- 
tion and  paraphrases.  It  begins  wdth  Odin  and  the 
poetic  Art,  then  follow  paraj^hrases  of  the  JEsir  and 
Asynjur,  of  the  World,  the  Earth,  the  Sea,  the  Sun, 
the  Wind,  Fire,  Summer,  Man,  Woman,  Gold,  &c., 
finally  of  War,  of  Arms,  of  a  Ship,  of  Christ,  the 
Emperor,  Kings,  Kulers,  &c.  The  whole  is  ar- 
ranged in  questions  and  answers,  and  many  prose 
narrations  are  given  in  explanation  of  particular 
passages,  such  as  Thor's  Combat  with  Geirro5,  Ot- 
tar's  expiration  for  murder,  Sigurd's  history,  &c.,  as 
well  as  passages  of  poems,  and  even  whole  poems, 
such  as  Tliors-draj)a,  Bjarkamal,  &c. 

A  supplement  to  the  Kenningar,  by  the  name  of 
Heiti,  is  found  in  some  of  the  copies,  which  consists 
of  denominations  in  Scaldic  language,  without  para- 
phrases. It  contains  terms  for  the  Scaldic  Art,  the 
gods,  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  earth,  various  natural 


58  INTRODUCTTON. 

objects,  the  changes  of  seasons,  (fee,  all  illustrated 
by  examples  from  the  lays  of  the  Skalds. 

The  Skalda,  i.  6.,  Poetics,  is  usually  included 
among  the  Eddaic  writings,  as  it  was  found  in  the 
collection  with  them.  It  is  a  treatise  on  Prosody, 
Phetoric,  (fee,  written  by  Snorri's  nephew,  Olaf 
Thordsson,  one  of  the  latest  of  the  Skalds,  and  con- 
tains a  number  of  epithets  and  metaphors  used  by 
the  Skalds,  illustrated  by  specimens  of  their  j^oetry, 
as  well  as  by  a  poem  by  Snorri,  written  in  a  hundred 
different  metres.  Tlie  whole  collection  is  also  called 
Hattatal  or  Hattalykil — Enumeration  of  Metres  or 
Clavis  Metrica. 

Beside  these,  there  is  a  Preface  (formali),  which 
begins  with  the  Creation  of  the  World,  and  ends 
with  the  emigration  of  the  Trojans  from  Asia  into 
the  North,  and  a  Conclusion  (eptirmali)  after  the 
mythological  part.  They  were  probably  written  by 
Snorri  himself,  and  are  an  absurd  mixture  of  He- 
brew, Greek,  Poman,  and  Scandinavian  myths  and 
legends,  thrown  together  in  a  confused  mass.  They 
appear  to  be  the  attempt  of  a  learned  Christian  to 
give  a  philosophical  and  historical  foundation  to  the 
^sir  doctrines,  and  to  bring  them  into  conformity 
with  the  Judaic  and  heathen  traditions. 

The  "  Kenningar  "  is  the  most  important  part  of 
tlie  prose  Edda,  as  it  gives  an  insight  into  the  nature 
of  the  poetic  spirit  and  the  mythic  conceptions  of 
the  Old- Scandinavians,  and  by  its  illustrations  and 
paraphrases  it  opens  the  way  to  an  understanding  of 
the  Sagas. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  Sagas  of  Iceland,  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


69 


take  a  hasty  glance  at  the  character  and  contents  of 
the  most  prominent  among  them.  We  say  "  of  Ice- 
land," for,  although  many  of  them  record  events 
wholly  out  of  Iceland,  and  they  are  written  in  the 
language  common  to  the  Norsemen  before  the  dis- 
covery of  Iceland,  which  is  therefore  properly  called 
the  "  Old  K'orse,"  still  they  were  written  by  Iceland- 
ers and  preserved  on  the  island,  therefore  the  litera- 
ture which  they  embody  is  properly  Icelandic, 
Saga,  in  its  original  meaning,  was  a  Saying^  a 
SpoJcen  narration,  and  when  these  "  sayings  "  came 
to  be  written  down,  they  still  retained  the  name 
which  had  become  established,  and  Saga  came  to 
signify  a  written  history,  a  book  of  traditions  or 
savin2:s. 

The  Old-Icelanders  did  not  distinguish  very  criti- 
cally between  mythic  and  historic  narrative.  In  the 
fresh  life  of  a  primitive  heathen  people,  in  whom  the 
imagination  is  active,  and  the  Actual  and  the  Imagi- 
nary are  not  very  clearly  separated,  fiction  becomes 
real,  and  reality  becomes  poetical.  The  ideal  world 
of  Gods  and  Heroes  was  not  believed  in  as  existing 
merely  in  the  poet's  fancy,  but  as  an  outward, 
physical  reality,  like  the  human  world  around  them. 
Therefore  every  narration  was  called  a  Saga 
whether  mythical,  poetical,  or  purely  historical,  so 
that  the  Sagas  embrace  every  prose  narration, 
every  general,  local,  or  family  history,  every  bio- 
graphy of  a  Skald,  a  chieftain  or  a  priest,  as  well  as 
the  mythic  histories  of  the  Yolsungar,  the  Yngliu- 
gar,  d:c. — in  short,  the  whole  historical  literature  of 


60  INTRODUCTION. 

Old-Icelaud  is,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  term,  only 
one  continuous,  unending  Saga. 

The  Sagas  may  be  divided  into  the  Poetic  or  Fic- 
titious^ and  the  Historical — tlie  former  embracing 
the  Mythic  and  the  Romantic^  the  latter  including 
all  general^  local  2ii\di  family  Histories^  and  Biogra- 
phies. 

Of  the  Mythic  class  we  have — 1.  Tlie  Yolsunga- 
saga ;  2.  The  iSTornagests-saga,  and  3.  The  Vilkina- 
saga,  which  contain  the  same  story  of  the  Yolsungar 
and  Xifiungar.  The  two  former  are  mostly  drawn 
from  the  Eddaic  Lays,  although  the  first  refers  to 
other  poems  now  lost,  and  the  second  is  much  dis- 
guised by  arbitrary  fiction.  The  Yilkina-saga  is  the 
history  of  Diedrich  of  Bern,  a  collection  of  Sagas  in 
accordance  with  the  German  Ileldenhuch  and 
Wibelungen  Lied.  It  has  not  the  stamp  of  antiquity 
which  the  others  possess,  being  evidently  written 
about  the  fourteenth  century,  and  though  not  a 
translation  from  the  German,  is  wholly  written  down 
from  the  German  stories.  4.  Fundinn  Noregr— the 
Found  JSTorway — ^is  a  curious  attempt  at  a  genea- 
logical history  of  Ancient  Xorway,  drawn  from 
mythological  names  and  genealogies.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  regarded  as  a  reliable  source  of  history, 
and  is  the  basis  of  many  earlier  historical  works  on 
the  IS^orth. 

The  following  heroic   Sagas   belong  also  to  the' 
Mythic  class^  for,  although  the  heroes  are  remotely 
historical,  yet  amid  the  drapery  of  the  Sagas  they 
step  forth  as  mythic  beings: — 1.  Ilalfs-saga,  which 
relates  the  history  of  King  Alfrek,  of  IIor5aland, 


INTRODUCTION.  61 

and  of  tlie  liero  Half  and  his  warriors.  It  abounds 
in  quotations  from  old  poems,  and  dates  from  about 
the  thirteenth  century.  2.  Sagan  af  Hrolfi  Konungi 
Kraka  ok  Koppum  bans.  The  history  of  King 
Hrolf  Kraka  and  his  Champions.  Hrolf  &aka  is 
the  chief  personage  of  the  mythic  race  of  Skjoldun-^ 
gar,  with  whose  name  is  connected  the  history  of 
the  most  celebrated  Old-Danish  Heroes,  so  that  we 
liave  rather  a  complete  Book  of  Heroes  than  a 
sino-le  Sao^a.  It  is  thus  divided  into  sections  com- 
prising  the  histories  of  King  FroSi,  of  Hroar  and 
Helgi,  of  Svipdagr  and  his  brothers,  of  Bodvar 
Bjarki  and  his  brothers,  of  Hjalti  the  Meek,  of 
Adils  the  Upsala-King  and  the  Expedition  of  Hrolf 
and  his  Champions  into  Sweden,  of  the  End  of  King 
Hrolf  and  his  Champions. 

These  may  have  be'en  independent  Sagas  origi- 
nally, which  were  afterward  collected  from  old  tra- 
ditions by  the  Saga  writer.  In  their  present  form 
they  are  not  older  than  the  fourteenth  century,  but 
the  subjects  are  far  more  ancient,  as  is  seen  by  the 
Bjarka-mal,  a  poem  in  it  which  was  known,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eleventli  century,  as  a  very  ancient 
song.  3.  Saga  af  Kagnari  Konungi  L65br6k  ok 
Sonum  bans — Tlie  history  of  King  Ragnar  L65br6k 
and  his  sons.  Ragnar  L65br6k  approaches  Hrolf 
Kraka  in  mythic  glory,  but  is  more  liistorical,  as  he 
was  the  hero  of  the  sea-roving  life  of  the  North- 
men, especially  in  the  plundering  expeditions  by 
which  England  was  laid  waste  after  the  close  of  the 
eighth  century.  As  these  expeditions  first  brought 
the  ISTorth  out  of  its  mythic  clair-obscurity  into  his- 
4 


62  INTRODUCTION. 

torical  liglit,  Bagnar  is  the  personage  who  represents 
the  transition  of  the  proper  Saga  into  History. 
"While  lie  appears  as  a  mythic  Hero  in  the  Icelandic 
songs  and  narrations,  he  is  a  purely  historical 
character  in  the  Chronicles  of  the  Old  Annalists  of 
^England,  France,  and  Germany.  Tliere  is  no  cer- 
tain proof  of  the  existence  of  the  more  ancient  Yng- 
lingar,  Skjoldungar,  (fee,  but  we  may  affirm  that 
Eagnar  L65br6k  lived  about  the  close  of  the  eighth 
and  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  All  the  rapa- 
city and  wild  adventure  which  characterized  the 
early  piratical  expeditions  to  England,  became  con- 
nected with  his  name,  and  he  thus  gradually  be- 
came a  legendary  being — a  personification  of  the 
Yiking-life.  It  is  that  spirit,  in  its  wild  and  dreadful 
reality,  that  appears  in  this  Saga.  It  was  written 
down  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  contains  many 
poems  of  older  date,  among  them  the  celebrated 
"Death  Song  of  Eagnar  L65br6k"  (L65br6kar- 
kvi5a),  which  belongs  to  the  Golden  Age  of  Skaldic 
literature,  i.  e.,  about  the  tenth  century.  A  short 
sketch  of  Eagnar's  Sons  (|)attr  af  Eagnars  Sonum), 
and  another  fragment  on  the  Upland  Kings  (af 
Upplendinga  Ivonungum),  are  connected  with  this 
Saga.  4.  Sogubrot — a  Historical  Fragment  of  some 
of  the  Old  Kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden,  which 
is  regarded  by  some  as  a  fragment  of  the  lost  Skjold- 
uuga  Saga. 

There  are  other  Sagas  wdiich  might  be  called 
mythic,  as  the  material  of  some  of  them  is  taken 
from  heathen  traditions,  and  others  are  founded 
upon  ancient  songs,  but  they  are  so  fantastically 


INTRODUCTIOK.  63 

adorned,  and  the  genuine  legend  is  so  transformed 
and  variegated  by  tlie  fictions  of  the  writer,  that 
they  are  more  properly  Bomantic  than  Mythic. 
In  the  best  Sagas  of  this  class  the  violation  of  tlie 
original  material  was  not  caused  by  the  caprice  of 
the  individual,  so  much  as  by  the  change  which  had 
been  wrought  upon  the  general  mind  through  the 
influence  of  Christianity  and  the  Romanticism  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  views  and  feelings  of  the 
mass  became  gradually  estranged  from  heathenism, 
and  in  the  fourteenth  century  (in  which  the  most  of 
them  were  written),  the  Gods,  Heroes,  Elves,  Yalas, 
&c.,  were  looked  upon  by  the  people  only  as  Iiings, 
Knights,  Sorcerers,  "\^itches,  &c. 

All  the  Sagas  of  this  class  border  on  the  fabu- 
lous ;  some  are  pure  fable,  others  are  chivalric  Ro- 
mances. Some  are  not  to  be  slighted  for  richness  of 
invention,  skillful  development  and  graceful  repre- 
sentation, while  others  are  flat  stories  of  goblins  and 
witches.  They  have  little  mythological  importance, 
except  that  here  and  there  a  pure  grain  of  Mythos 
may  be  picked  out  from  a  great  mass  of  rubbish. 

The  best  known  among  them  are  Fri5f)jofs-saga 
and  Hervarar-saga.  The  former  is  probably  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  is  full 
of  most  beautiful  poetry.  The  subject  is  thorough- 
ly mythic,  but  the  romantic  predominates  in  the 
treatment.  It  is  interesting  for  its  representation  of 
the  worship  of  Baldur  and  his  temple.  The  latter 
contains  some  very  fine  poems  inwoven  among 
much  fabulous  matter.  The  most  celebrated  among 
them  Iiervarar-kvi5a— Hcrvor's  conversation  with 


64  INTRODUCTION. 

her  father  Angantyr,  wliom  she  calls  out  of  the 
grave  in  order  to  olataiu  from  him  the  magic  sword 
Tyrfing.  Tlie  poem  is  much  older  than  the  prose 
narration  ;  it  is  in  true  heathen  spirit,  and  possesses 
great  power. 

In  this  class  may  also  be  reckoned  the  Saga  of 
Ketil  Heeng,  of  Grim  the  Bearded  (Lo5inkinna), 
Orvar  Odd's  Saga,  Saga  of  An  the  Archer  (Bogs- 
veigis,  Bow-lender\  of  Tliorstein  Yikingsson  and  a 
number  more,  which  we  need  not  enumerate. 
There  are  also  many  legends  translated  or  drawn 
from  the  mediaeval  Eomantic  literature  of  other 
nations.  All  of  the  best  productions  of  the  Eomantic 
spirit  in  Southern  lands  was  ajjpropriated  with  rest- 
less activity  by  the  Icelanders,  especially  the  num- 
berless sacred  legends  of  the  Middle  Ages.  All 
that  was  sung  or  written  in  Germany,  France,  Eng- 
land, Spain,  and  Belgium,  of  Charlemagne,  of  Ar- 
thur and  the  Round  Table,  of  the  Holy  Grail,  &c., 
they  collected  and  translated  or  related  anew.  So 
are  there  Icelandic  versions  of  Flores  and  Blanchi- 
flora,  of  Tristan,  of  Parcival,  and  of  Lohengrin, 
<fec.,  of  the  legends  of  Melusina,  Magelona,  and 
others,  in  short,  of  almost  all  the  Epic  productions 
of  the  Proven 9 als  and  the  Minnesiingers.  Tlie 
most  of  these  appeared  in  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  in  the  Golden  Age  of  Icelandic 
prose. 

The  Jlisiorical  class  constitutes  by  far  the  most 
extensive  and  valuable  department  of  the  Icelandic 
Sa^a-literature.  It  embraces  more  than  a  hundred 
Sagas,  which  throw  much  light  upon  the  institutions 


INTRODUCTION.  65 

and  government,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
North.  In  them  we  iind  the  family  and  the  com- 
monwealth minutely  and  clearly  described  in  their 
various  relations,  while  in  general  history  they  con- 
tain rich  treasures  for  tlie  historian  and  archaeolo- 
gist, which  are  even  yet  comparatively  untouched, 
and  out  of  the  North  are  almost  unknown. 

They  likewise  present  a  rich  field  of  mythological 
research,  not  so  much  in  mythic  memorials — for 
of  these  they  contain  few,  except  in  the  inwoven 
Skaldic  lays — as  in  the  information  they  give  con- 
cerning the  worship  and  the  entire  manifestation  of 
Xorthern  Heathendom.  They  lay  down  a  mass  of 
minute  and  credible  statements  in  regard  to  the 
temples,  festivals,  offerings,  religious  rites,  &c., 
which  are  indispensable  in  writing  a  history  of  the 
Idol-worship  of  Scandinavia. 

The  love  of  history  was  enkindled  among  the  Ice- 
landers by  their  intense  national  feelings,  and  the 
interest  in  public  affairs  which  was  required  by 
their  free  institutions,  as  well  as  by  their  attach- 
ment to  the  Old  and  the  Inherited,  and  their  con- 
stant longing  for'  their  Mother  Country.  As  soon 
as  the  written  language  was  developed  they  began 
to  write  history,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the 
Historical  Sagas  were  almost  universally  written 
before  the  Mythic  and  Romantic  ones.  Their  age 
is  chiefly  the  twelfth  and  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
centuries.  The  sources  of  history  were  the  lays  of 
the  Skalds,  and  the  genealogical  trees  which  every 
chieftain  was  careful  to  preserve. 

The  historiography  of  Iceland  is  generally  con- 


66  INTRODUCTION. 

fined  to  the  liistoiy  of  the  island  itself,  and  of  the 
Northern  Kingdoms,  hence  the  Sagas  of  this  class 
are  divided  into  Icelanders'  Histories  (Islendinga 
Sognr)  and  the  Histories  of  tlieir  Ancestors  (Forn- 
manna  Sogur).  To  the  former  belong  all  that 
relate  to  Iceland,  nsually  inclnding  those  of  the 
Orkneys,  Faroes,  and  Greenland.  The  General 
Histories  are  few  in  number.  They  are  :  1.  Islend- 
inga-bok,  the  Icelanders'  Book,  written  by  Ari 
Fr65i,  and  usually  entitled  "  Schedse,"  which  is  re- 
garded as  the  oldest  book  of  the  whole  Icelandic 
literature.  It  is  a  dry  and  meagre  sketch  of  the 
most  important  events  of  Iceland  from  the  first  set- 
tlement down  to  about  the  year  1120. 

2.  Landndma-bok — Land-taking  Bool:^  a  detailed 
history  of  the  early  settlement  and  appropriation  of 
Iceland  until  toward  the  end  of  the  tenth  century. 
It  is  also  rather  dry,  from  the  long  lists  of  names  and 
genealogies,  but  the  details  are  more  interesting 
than  the  "  Schedse."  It  presents  a  good  picture  of 
the  religious  ceremonies,  and  of  their  connection 
with  judicial  and  political  aftairs.  It  was  written 
and  continued  by  various  authors,  and  received  its 
present  form  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth,  or 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

3.  Kristni-saga,  a  History  of  the  Introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Iceland.  It  opens  with  the  year 
981,  closes  with  1121,  and  appears  to  have  been 
written  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
It  contains  much  important  information  respecting 
the  heathen  life  and  occupations  of  the  Icelanders. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  Orkney inga-saga,  a  his- 


INTRODUCTION.  67 

tory  of  the  Orkueian  Jarls  from  the  end  of  the  ninth 
to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the 
Fgereyinga-saga,  strictly  the  biography  of  the  two 
chieftains,  Thrand  and  Sigmnnd  Brestason ;  but  as 
they  gain  authority  over  the  Faroes,  it  becomes 
also  a  history  of  the  islands  themselves.  It  em- 
braces the  end  of  the  tenth  and  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  centuries,  and  appears  to  have  been 
written  in  the  twelfth.  The  events  which  it  relates 
still  live  in  the  mouths  of  the  Faroe  peoj^le. 

The  Local  and  Family  Histories  and  Biographies 
are  far  more  numerous,  as  well  as  more  entertain- 
ing and  instructive.  They  give  an  insight  into  the 
private  life  of  the  people,  and  although  they  usually 
contain  events  of  trifling  importance,  such  as  fam- 
ily quarrels,  deeds  of  vengeance,  legal  trials,  jour- 
neys to  Iceland,  JSTorway,  England,  &c.,  yet  in 
vivacity  of  manner,  freshness  of  delineation,  and 
simplicity  of  style  they  are  very  attractive.  They 
are,  in  effect,  Komances,  but  Eomances  which  have 
a  historical  foundation,  and,  making  allowance  for 
poetical  decorations,  are  strictly  historical  in  their 
minutest  details.  It  is  in  fact  their  minute  individ- 
ualization of  events,  circumstances,  and  characters, 
together  with  the  manner  of  narration,  which  gives 
them  the  character  of  Komances.  The  most  import- 
ant among  those  written  in  the  twelfth  century 
are ;  1.  Yiga-Styrs-saga,  the  history  of  the  chieftain 
Agrip,  who  on  account  of  his  quarrelsome  disposi- 
tion and  deeds  of  blood  was  called  Yiga-Styr,  and 
was  finally  slain  by  Gest,  the  son  of  one  of  his  vic- 
tims.    His  son  Thorhall  then  pursues  Gest  for  a  long 


68  INTRODDCTION. 

course  of  years,  eveu  to  Byzantium,  but  finally  they 
are  reconciled.  In  the  meantime,  however,  one 
Snorri  Go5i  kills  a  kinsman  of  Yiga-St}'r ;  which 
act,  according  to  the  laws  of  retaliation,  calls  for 
vengeance  from  the  friends  of  the  deceased.  2.  In 
HeiSarviga-saga,  the  "  Story  of  the  Battle  on  the 
Heath,"  the  friends  of  the  murdered  man  avenge 
themselves  by  slaying  Hall  Gn5mnndsson,  a  friend 
of  Snorri's,  and  the  brothers  of  the  latter  again  re- 
taliate, after  which  the  parties  engage  in  the  "  Bat- 
tle on  the  Heath,"  from  which  the  Saga  is  named. 
Peace  is  finally  established  by  Snorri's  ingenuity. 
The  time  of  action  is  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh. 

3.  IS^ials-saga  closes  with  the  year  1017.  In  rich- 
ness and  variety  it  is  far  superior  to  any  of  this 
class.  A  mass  of  occurrences  are  here  brouirht  to- 
gether  and  arranged  into  a  well-ordered  whole. 
The  various  j^ersonages  are  well  delineated,  while 
their  respective  characters  are  maintained  through- 
out, and  always  presented  with  dramatic  efiect. 
There  are  scenes  of  the  most  touching  2)athos,  such 
as  the  burning  of  ISTial  and  his  sons,  and  the  narra- 
tion is  often  relieved  by  a  vein  of  humor.  Tlie  nu- 
merous assemblies  of  the  people  and  legal  trials 
which  are  described,  give  us  a  good  idea  of  the  ju- 
dicial and  political  institutions  of  Iceland.  Making 
allowance  for  the  tedium  of  some  of  these  details, 
this  Saga  will  not  lose  by  comparison  with  the 
higher  literature  of  any  age.  It  contains  many 
poems,  among  them  the  celebrated  song  of  the  Yal- 
kyrjur. 


mTRODUCTION.  69 

4.  Guiilaiigs  Ormstiingu-saga,  is  the  life  of  the 
Skald  Gnnlang,  the  Serpent-Tongiied,  who  traveled 
about  much  in  Norway,  England,  and  Sweden,  was 
loved  and  caressed  for  his  talents,  and  hated  for  his 
cutting  sarcasm.  He  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  the 
year  1013. 

5.  Yiga-Glums-saga.  History  of  the  chieftan 
Glum,  who  became  notorious  by  his  cunning  and 
impudence  in  some  unimx)ortant  quarrels,  and  who 
died  in  1003  as  a  Christian.  Although  there  are 
few  important  or  interesting  occurrences  in  this 
Saga,  it  contains  valuable  contributions  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  worship  and  religious  tenets  of  the  Ice- 
landers. 

6.  -Egils-saga  is,  perhaps,  the  most  attractive  of 
the  Icelandic  Biographies.  Egil,  a  renow^ned  poet 
and  chieftain,  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  His  life 
was  most  active,  wild  and  adventurous.  Under  every 
variety  of  circumstances  he  roved  about  in  the 
North-lands,  and  plunderexl  on  the  coasts  of  Fries- 
land,  Saxony  and  Prussia ;  his  violent  passion,  his 
quarrelsome  and  vindictive  disposition "  precipitated 
him  into  the  most  desperate  situations,  but  cun- 
ning, physical  strength,  and  his  poetic  gift,  always 
rescued  him.  AVearied  at  length  with  this  barren, 
unstable  life,  and  rich  in  experience,  in  renown, 
and  in  treasures,  he  returned  to  his  distant  home, 
where  he  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  celebrated  as  a 
Skald  and  feared  as  a  chieftain,  and  died  adven- 
turously at  last. 

7.  Kormaks-saga.  Kormak  was  scarcely  less  re- 
now^ned  as  a  poet  than  Egil,  of  whom  he  was  a  co- 

4* 


70  INTRODUCTION. 

temporary ;  but  his  mildness  and  affability  were  in 
pleasing  contrast  with  the  daring  and  blood-stained 
Egil.  His  whole  life  appears  under  the  influence 
of  one  feeling — ^his  love  to  Steinger5a.  But  this 
love  was  unfortunate  through  his  own  fault ;  and 
Steinger5a  became  affianced  to  another.  Kormak 
travels  in  the  vain  hope  of  repose,  meets  with  va- 
rious adventures  in  a  sea-roving  life,  and  continues 
to  write  verses  in  praise  of  Steinger5a  to  the  day  of 
his  death. 

8.  Yatnsdsela-saga  begins  in  the  ninth  century, 
before  the  colonization  of  Ireland,  and  relates  the 
fortunes  of  a  Norwegian  family  wdiich  settled  in 
Yatnsdal,  in  ]^orthern  Iceland.  It  contains  many 
mythological  allusions,  and  the  God  Freyr  plays  a 
prominent  role  in  it. 

The  rostbr8e5ra-saga  relates  the  story  of  two  fos- 
ter-brothers of  the  eleventh  .century,  and  contains 
verses  written  by  one  of  them ;  the  Ljosvetninga- 
saga  relates  occurrences  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
tenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Its  chief  personages,  Thorgeir  Go5i,  Gu5mund  the 
Mighty,  and  their  sons,  are  elsewhere  known  and 
celebrated.  It  contains  important  information  con- 
cerning the  institutions  of  Iceland  ;  and  the  Saga  of 
Gisli  Sursson  has  some  interesting  features  of  hea- 
then rites  and  ceremonies.  Passing  by  many  oUiers 
attributed  to  this  century,  some  of  which  contain 
valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  heathendom 
in  Iceland,  w^e  will  notice  a  few  of  the  most  promi- 
nent Sagas  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

1.  Eyrbyggja-saga,  the  history  of  Ilrolf,  a  priest  of 


INTRODUCTION.  71 

Tlior,  uiid  hiis  race.  He  Hed  from  Harald  Harfa- 
grij  and  settled  on  a  large  bay  in  western  Iceland, 
which  he  called  "  Brei5afjor5,"  tlie  Broad  Firth. 
Here  he  built  a  large  temple  to  Thor,  which  he  and 
his  descendants  presided  over.  Of  these  his  great- 
grandson  Snorri  Go6i  appears  as  the  prominent  per- 
sonage of  the  Saga.  This  Saga  gives  a  clear  view 
of  the  Old-Scandinavian  worship  of  Thor,  as  it  was 
transplanted  to  Iceland. 

^.  Laxdgela-saga,  one  of  the  most  comprehensive,, 
and  in  fullness  of  material,  in  the  plan  and  in  com- 
pleteness of  narration,  perhaps  the  best.  It  covers 
the  period  of  Olaf  Trjggvason's  reign,  about  the 
year  1000,  and  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Is'orway  and  Iceland.  The  history  of  that 
time,  especially  of  the  transition  of  the  heathen  life 
of  the  I^orthmen  into  the  Christian,  is  finely  repre- 
sented in  this  Saga. 

3.  Sturlunga-saga,  or  Mendinga-saga  hin  mikla — 
''  the  Great  Saga  of  the  Icelanders,"  is  the  most  de- 
tailed of  all.  It  treats  of  the  much-renowned  race  of 
the  Sturlungar,  and  relates  their  fortunes  and  their 
deeds  from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century 
until  the  year  1281:.  It  therefore  embraces  a  ]3eriod 
much  later  than  the  times  of  heathendom,  and  is 
very  important  in  the  history  of  Iceland. 

4.  Arons-saga  Hjorleifssonar  is  connected  with 
the  above  Saga,  Aron,  the  son  of  Hjorleif,  being 
one  of  the  few  chieftains  who  supported  Bishop  Gu6- 
mund  against  the  Sturlungs.     He  died  in  1250. 

5.  Grettis-saga  is  very  rich  in  events,  but  full  of 
romantic  and  fabulous  traits.     The  hero  is  Grettir 


Y2 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  Strong,  an  oft-mentioned  Skald  of  the  eleventh 
century,  who  somewhat  resembles  Egil  in  wild  reck- 
lessness, but  is  less  gifted  as  a  poet. 

Many  more  Sagas  of  the  thirteenth  century 
may  be  passed  by  here,  as  they,  with  few  excep- 
tions, are  of  secondary  importance;  and  there  is 
quite  a  large  number  from  the  fourteenth,  and  even 
some  from  the  fifteenth  century ;  but  the  later  we 
come,  the  less  interest  they  have  for  us,  and  the  less 
reliable  they  are.  Many  of  them  are  wholly  sup- 
posititious, being  not  mere  fictions,  but  forgeries. 
They  seem  to  move  upon  historical  ground,  while 
they  are  in  reality  nothing  but  silly  inventions  and 
fables,  which  it  would  be  a  misnomer  to  call  histori- 
cal. 

^  The  Historical  Sagas  relating  to  the  other  Scan- 
dinavian   countries,   are    generally   more    finished 
works  than  the  preceding,  being  complete  histories 
of  a  whole  age  or  period.     The  Icelanders  felt  a 
strong  attachment  to  their  Mother  Country,  which 
they  often  visited,  and  they  naturally  were'^fiimiliar 
with  its  traditions  and  passing  events.     They  there- 
fore labored  as  diligently  upon  its  history  as  at  their 
own,  and  as  they  had  to  collect  and  compare  tradi- 
tions and  occurrences  which  were  not  living  in  the 
mouths  of  the  people  around  them,  they  found  it 
necessary  to  generalize  and  arrange  t\\Q  material— 
a   work   requiring  superior  learning   and   talents. 
Hence  they  wrote  more  general  Histories  and  fewer 
local  Sagas  bearing  upon  those  countries. 

On  the  history  of  Denmark  there  are  two  large 
Sagas,  which  are  master-pieces  of  Icelandic  histo- 
riograpliy,  viz. : 


INTRODUCTION.  Y3 

1.  Jomsvikinga-saga,  tlie  history  of  the  renowned 
Sea-rovers,  who  were  established  at  Jomsburg,  near 
the  month  of  the  Oder,  and  who  were  for  a  long 
time  the  terror  of  all  the  neighboring  coasts.  It  be- 
gins with  an  account  of  the  race  of  Palnatoki,  the 
founder  of  Jomsburg,  and  relates  how  Sven  was 
brought  up  by  him,  and  incited  to  continual  pirati- 
cal excursions  against  the  lands  of  his  father,  Har- 
ald  Blatand,  how  King  Ilarald  fell  by  Palnatoki, 
and  the  latter,  after  Sven's  ascension  to  the  throne, 
was  pursued  by  him,  and  built  a  large  fortress  on 
the  Yendian  coast,  in  which  he  formally  established 
a  community  of  Sea-rovers,  and  strengthened  it  by 
appropriate  laws.  In  the  second  part  it  treats  of 
the  causes  which  brought  about  the  celebrated  ex- 
pedition of  the  Jomsburgers  against  iS'orway,  which 
it  describes,  and  paints  circumstantially  the  battle 
in  which  the  power  of  the  Sea-rovers  was  broken 
down  by  Hakon  Jarl.  This  Saga  was  written  in 
the  eleventh  or  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
from  authentic  sources,  as  many  Icelanders  were  in 
Hakon  Jarl's  army  at  the  aforesaid  battle.  It  is 
distinguished  for  the  perspicuity  with  w^hich  cir- 
cumstances and  persons  are  represented,  and  is 
important,  not  only  to  Danish  history,  but  also  to 
Mythology,  since  the  chief  personages  are  the  last 
representatives  of  Heathendom  in  the  ISTorth,  and 
consequently  heathen  sentiments  and  manners  are 
everywhere  presented.  , 

2.  Knytlinga-saga,  a  history  of  the  Danish  Kings 
from  Harald  Blatand  to  Knut  YI.,  of  whom  the 
successors  of  Knut  the  Great  were  named  "  Knyt- 


74  I^nRODUOTION. 

lingar''  (Knutides,  clescendaiits  of  Canute).  It  was 
written,  partly  from  older  sources,  by  Olaf  Tlior- 
darsson  (died  1259),  who  composed  a  fragment  of 
the  Prose  Edda.  Although  the  events  mostly  take 
place  in  Christian  times,  yet  it  is  not  wanting  in 
poetic  beauties,  and  even  the  greater  part  of  the 
first  chapter  is  taken  from  the  lays  of  Eirik  Jarl 
and  Sven  Estri5son,  the  Court  Skalds  of  Knut  the 
Great. 

Of  the  Saigas  relatino^  to  Xorwav  we  have: 

1.  Saga  Olafs  Tryggvasonar,  Olaf  Tryggvason's 
Saga,  in  two  diiFerent  works,  both  independent  of 
Snorri's,  and  undertaken  before  it.  One  is  by  Monk 
Oddur  (d.  1200),  the  other  by  Monk  Gunlaug,  a 
younger  cotemporary  of  the  former.  Both  were 
written  in  Latin,  and  of  both  we  have  only  Icelandic 
translations.  Olaf  Tryggvason  was  the  founder 
of  Christianity  in  ]S"orway,  and  in  his  history  there 
are  various  references  to  Heathendom,  w^hich  he 
was  actively  engaged  in  driving  out  by  force.  Both 
these  works  afford  a  rich  mine  for  the  mythologist, 
inasmuch  as  they  mifold  the  decay  of  heathen  life 
in  the  Xorth,  and  its  transition  to  Christianity. 
Gunlaug's  work  is  also  interesting  from  the  great 
number  of  inlaid  Skaldic  Songs. 

2.  Saga  Olafs  bins  Ilelga,  the  Saga  of  Olaf  the 
Saint.  This  King  continued  the  work  of  conversion 
begun  by  his  predecessor,  and  hence  this  Saga  has 
for  us  a  similar  interest  to  the  preceding  one,  al- 
though in  a  less  degree.  It  contains  songs  of  Sig- 
livat,  Ottar  the  Swarthy,  and  others. 


INTRODUCTION.  75 

3.  Heimskringla,  tlie  World- Circle,'^  the  Chroni- 
cles of  the  Norwegian  Kings,  bj  Snorri  Sturlason. 
I^ext  to  the  Edda,  this  is  the  most  celebrated  work  in 
the  whole  Icelandic  literature.  It  begins  as  far  back 
in  the  m^^thic  times  as  memory  reaches,  while  the 
other  Icelandic  histories  usually  begin  with  Harald 
Harfagri,  and  it  comes  down  to  Magnus  Erlingsson, 
A.  I).  1176.  It  is  not  a  primitive  history,  drawn 
immediately  from  the  traditions  and  songs  of  the 
people,  as  was  the  case  with  many  of  the  Sagas,  but 
was  constructed  by  Snorri  from  materials  already 
blocked  out  in  previously-existing  Sagas.  These 
Sagas  contained  a  tolerably  fall  history  of  Korway, 
in  isolated  fragments,  which  Snorri  collected,  modi- 
lied,  and  combined  with  remarkable  care  and  judg- 
ment, into  one  continuous  historical  work.  This 
origin  of  the  Heimskringla  is  shown  in  the  circum- 
stance that  it  is  divided  into  different  Sagas,  as  well 
as  by  certain  variations  and  contradictions  that 
occur  in  the^different  parts. f 

Snorri's  account  has  only  an  incidental  interest 
for  the  mythologist  where  it  treats  of  the  later, 
purely  Christian  ages  of  Norway ;  it  is  more  im- 
portant where  the  downfall  of  the  heathen  life  is 

*  This  work  has  been  thue  named  by  the  learned  from  the  two 
principal  words  at  the  beginning:  "Svd.  er  sagt  at  krmr/la  hehn- 
sins."  "  It  is  said  that  the  circle  of  the  world,  <tc."  In  the  MS.  it 
is  called  "^Efi  jS"oregs  Koniinga,"  "Life  of  the  Kings  of  Norway," 
or  "Noregs  Koniiaga  Sogur,"  "Sagas  of  the  Kings  of  Norway," 

f  The  Introduction  begins :  "  d  b6k  J)essi  let  ek  rita  forna  frasag- 
nir."  "In  this  book  I  have  caused  the  ancient  narratives  to  be  lorit- 
ten,  (fee,"  as  though  he  had  only  attended  to  the  editing  of  it. 


76  INTRODUCTION. 

represented,  and  liiglily  interesting  in  the  delinea- 
tion of  the  mythic  age — in  the  Ynghnga  Saga. 

This  gives  an  account  of  the  first  mythic  race  of 
Kings  in  Sweden  and  Xorway,  the  Ynghngar,  and 
is  a  kind  of  Introduction.  Snorri  wrote  it  from 
Tlijodolf 's  "fnglinga-tal,  and  throughout  the  latter 
part  of  it  he  inhiid  every  iinportant  transaction  w^ith 
a  strophe  of  that  ancient  poem.  This  portion  of  the 
work  is  of  no  historical  value,  and,  in  a  mythological 
point  of  view,  it  becomes  absurd  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters, where  the  attempt  is  made  to  establish  the 
Ynglinga  history  upon  the  history  of  the  Gods,  and 
to  connect  the  two  by  means  of  foreign,  Graeco-Eo- 
man  ideas  and  traditions.  The  other  ]3ortions  of  the 
Heimskringla  are  adorned  with  fine  poems,  which 
impart  a  certain  mythologic  interest  to  the  whole 
work. 

It  was  continued  by  various  aiithors,  down  to  the 
time  of  Magnus  the  Law-mender ;  namely,  in  Sver- 
ris-saga,  begun  by  the  Abbot  Carl  Jonsson,  and 
finished  by  Styrmir  the  Learned;  and  further, 
through  four  other  Sagas,  down  to  Magnus  Laga- 
bietis-Saga,  written  by  Sturla^Thordarsson,  of  wliicli 
only  a  fragment  remains.  With  Snorri's  history, 
the  masterpiece  of  Icelandic  Historiography,  and 
the  pieces  annexed  to  it,  we  conclude  this  brief 
sketch  of  the  Saga  literature  of  Iceland. 


INTRODUCTION. 


77 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA   BY   THE   NORTHMEN. 

The  restoration  of  Icelandic  literature  has  brought 
to  light  some  pages  of  history  which  are  specially 
interesting  to  Americans — they  are  the  accounts  of 
the  discovery  of  our  country  by  the  j^orthmen. 
The  different  manuscripts  bearing  on  this  subject, 
contain  accounts  which  cannot  be  explained  other- 
wise than  by  admitting  the  fact  of  discovery,  and  in 
many  important  circumstances  they  corroborate 
each  other.  They  have  all  been  collected  by  Prof. 
Charles  C.  Eafn,  in  the  work  entitled,  "  Antiquitates 
Americanse,  &c.,"  which  was  published^ in  1837,  by 
him,  through  the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Anti- 
quaries of  Copenhagen.  Tliese  historical  facts  have 
now  been  several  years  before  the  world,  and  they 
are  sometimes  referred  to  in  connection  with  the 
early  history  of  America,  yet  in  general  they  are 
but  imperfectly  known,  and  the  references  to  them 
are  sometimes  incorrect.  The  following  is  an  ab- 
stract of  the  "Antiquitates,"  by  Professor  Rafn  : 

Gardar  the  Dane,  of  Swedish  origin,  was  the  first 
J^orthman  who  discovered  Iceland,  in  the  year  863. 
A  few  out-places  of  the  country  had  been  visited 
previously,  about  seventy  years  before,  by  some 


78  LNTRODLCTIUN. 

Irish  hermits.  Eleven  years  afterward,  or  in  874, 
the  Norwegian  Ingolf  began  the  colonization  of  the 
country,  which  was  continued  during  the  space  of 
sixty  years.  The  colonists,  many  of  whom  belonged 
to  the  most  illustrious  and  most  civilized  families  in 
the  K'orth,  established  in  Iceland  a  flourishing  Ee- 
public.  Here,  on  this  distant  island-rock,  the  Old- 
Korse  language  was  preserved  unchanged  for  cen- 
turies, and  here  in  the  Ecldas  were  treasm-ed  those 
Folk-songs  and  Folk-myths,  and  in  the  Sagas  those 
historical  Tales  and  Legends,  which  the  lirst  settlers 
had  brought  with  them  from  their  Scandinavian 
mother-lands.  Iceland  was,  therefore,  the  cradle  of 
a  historical  literature  of  immense  value. 

The  situation  of  the  island  and  the  relationship  of 
the  colony  to  foreign  countries  in  its  earlier  period, 
compelled  its  inhabitants  to  exercise  and  develop 
their  hereditary  maritime  skill  and  thirst  for  new 
discoveries  across  the  great  Ocean.  As  early  as  the 
year  877,  Gunnbjorn  saw,  for  the  first  time,  the 
mountainous  coast  of  Greenland.  But  this  land  was 
first  visited  by  Erik  the  Eed,  in  983,  who,  three 
years  afterwards,  in  986,  by  means  of  Icelandic 
emigrants,  established  the  first  colony  on  its  South- 
western shore,  where  afterward,  in  1124,  the 
Bishop's  See,  of  Gardar,  was  founded,  which  subsist- 
ed for  upwards  of  300  years.  The  head  firths  or 
bays  were  named  after  the  chiefs  of  the  expedition. 
Erik  the  Eed  settled  in  Eriks-firth,  Einar,  Eafn  and 
Ketil  in  the  firths  called  after  them,  and  Herjulf  on 
Herjulfsnes.  On  a  voyage  from  Iceland  to  Green- 
land in  this  same  year  {*^^^)^  Bjarne,  the  son  of  the 


rNTEODUCTlON.  79 

latter,  was  driven  far  out  to  sea  towards  the  Soutli.- 
west,  and,  for  the  first  time,  beheld  the  coasts  of  the 
American  lands,  afterwards  visited  and  named  by 
his  countrymen.  In  order  to  examine  these  coun- 
tries more  narrowly,  Leif  the  Fortunate,  son  of 
Erik  the  Ked,  undertook  a  voyage  of  discovery 
thither  in  the  year  1000.  He  landed  on  the  shores 
described  by  Bjarne,  detailed  the  character  of  these 
lands  more  exactly,  and  gave  them  names  according 
to  their  appearance :  Helluland  (Newfoundland)  w^as 
so  called  from  its  Hat  stones,  Markland  (Kova 
Scotia)  from  its  woods,  and  Yinland  (New  England) 
from  its  vines.  Here  he  remained  for  some  time, 
and  constructed  large  houses,  called  after  him 
Leifsbu5ir  {Leif^s  Booths).  A  German  named 
Tyrker,  who  accompanied  Leif  on  this  voyage,  was 
the  man  who  found  the  wild- vines,  which  he  recog- 
nized from  having  seen  them  in  his  native  land,  and 
Leif  gave  the  country  its  name  from  this  circumstance. 
Two  years  afterward  Leif's  brother  Thorvald  repair- 
ed thither,  and  in  1003  caused  an  expedition  to  be 
undertaken  to  the  South,  along  the  shore,  but  he 
was  killed  in  the  summer  of  1001  on  a  voyage 
northward,  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives. 

The  most  distinguished,  however,  of  all  the  first 
American  discoverers  is  Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  an 
Icelander,  whose  genealogy  is  carried  back  in  the 
Old-Xorthern  annals  to  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwe- 
gian, Scottish,  and  Irish  ancestors,  some  of  them  of 
royal  blood.  In  1006  this  chieftain,  on  a  merchant- 
voyage,  visited  Greenland,  and  there  married 
Gudrid,  the  widow  of  Thorstein  (son  of  Erik  the 


80  INTKODUCTION. 

•Red),  who  bad  died  the  year  before  in  an  luisuccess- 
fal  expedition  to  Yinland.  Accomj^anied  by  his 
■wife,  who  encouraged  him  to  this  voyage,  and  by  a 
crew  of  160  men  on  board  three  vessels,  he  repaired 
in  the  spring  of  1007  to  Yinland,  where  he  remain- 
ed for  three  years,  and  had  many  communications 
with  the  aborigines.  Here  his  wife  Gudrid  bore 
him  a  son,  Snorri,*  who  became  the  founder  of  an 
illustrious  family  in  Iceland,  which  gave  that  island 
several  of  its  lirst  Bishops.  His  daughter's  son  was 
the  celebrated  Bishop  Thorlal^  Eunolfson,  who  pub- 
lished the  first  Christian  Code  of  Iceland.  -  In  1121 
Bishop  Erik  sailed  tt)  Yinland  from  Greenland, 
doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  his  coun- 
trymen in  their  Christian  faith. 

The  notices  given  by  the  old  Icelandic  voyage- 
chroniclers  respecting  the  climate,  the  soil,  and  the 
productions  of  this  new  country,  are  very  character- 
istic. K"ay,  we  have  even  a  statement  of  this  kind 
as  old  as  the.  eleventh  century,  from  a  writer  not  a 
^N^orthman,  Adam  of  Bremen ;  he  states,  on  the 
authority  of  Sven  Estri5son,  King  of  Denmark,  a 
nephew  of  Canute  the  Great,  that  the  country  got 
its  name  from  the  vine  growing  wild  there.  It  is  a 
remarkable  coincidence  in  this  respect,  that  its  Eng- 
lish re-discoverers,  for  the  same  reason,  name  the 
large  island  which  is  close  off  the  coast  Martlia)s 
Vineyard.  Spontaneously  growing  wheat  (maize 
or  Indian  corn)  was  also  found  in  this  country. 

*  The  celebrated  Danish  sculptor,  Thorvaldsen,  was  a  descend- 
ant of  this  Snorri  Thorfinnsson,  who  was  born  in  America,  A.  D. 
1008. 


INTRODIJCTION.  81 

In  the  mean  time  it  is  the  total  result  of  the  nauti- 
cal, geographical,  and  astronomical  evidences  in  the 
original  documents,  which  places  the  situation  of 
the  countries  discovered  beyond  all  doubt.  The 
number  of  days'  sail  between  the  several  newly- 
found  lands,  the  striking  description  of  the  coasts, 
especially  the  white  sand-banks  of  ISTova  Scotia  and 
the  long  beaches  and  downs  of  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance on  Cape  Cod  (the  Kjalarnes  and  Fur5ustrandir 
of  the  Northmen),  are  not  to  be  mistaken.  In  addi- 
tion hereto,  we  have  the  astronomical  remark  that 
the  shortest  day  in  Yinland  was  nine  hours  long, 
which  fixes  the  latitude  of  41  deg.  24  min.  10  sec, 
or  just  that  of  the  promontories  which  limit  the 
entrance  to  Mount  Hope  Bay,  where  Leif 's  booths 
were  built,  and  in  the  district  around  which  the  old 
Northmen  had  their  head  establishment,  which  was 
named  b}^  them  Hop. 

When  we  reflect  that  the  strongest  and  most  un- 
deniable evidence  has  been  adduced  to  prove  the 
fact  of  an  Icelandic-Norwegian  discovery  of  our 
continent  in  the  tenth  century,  it  becomes  a  matter 
both  of  surprise  and  regret  that  some  of  our  most 
lauded  writers  of  American  history  should  either 
leave  the  event  entirely  unnoticed,  or  dispose  of  it 
in  some  half-dozen  well-rounded  and  skeptical  sen- 
tences. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  NORTHMEN 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  JS'ortliinen,  before  their  conversion  to  Cliris- 
tianitj,  and  as  far  back  in  time  as  History  is  able  to 
folloAv  them,  were  the  adherents  of  a  Eeligion  nsnal- 
ly  called  the  Asa-Faith^  from  the  ^sh\  the  Gods 
concerning  ^Yhom  it  tanght.  This  Asa-Eeligion  in 
its  pecnliar  form  ma}^  be  considered  as  having 
sprung  into  being  with  the  Germanic  race,  and  as 
being,  in  its  fundamental  principles,  inherited  and 
propagated  by  the  two  branches  of  that  race — the 
NorrcBna  and  the  German' — so  that  its  essential 
doctrines  were  common  to  both,  although  in  its 
farther  development,  by  each  of  them,  it  followed  a 
peculiar  direction. 

For  the  elucidation  of  the  Asa-Faith  in  its  Ger- 
manic form,  the  resources,  even  though  not  wholly 
insignificant,  are  yet  difficult  to  be  employed,  as 
they  are  widely  scattered,  and  have  to  be  looked 
for  among  much-corrupted  popular  legends,  and  in 
manuscripts  of  the  middle  ages,  where  they  are 
occasionally  found  interpolated,  and  where  we 
should  least  expect  to  meet  with  them."^     But  in  its 

*  Jacob  Grimm's  diligence  and  penetration  hare  thrown  new 
light  on  this  subject  in  his  excellent  ^'ork,  "Deutsche  Mythologie.*' 

5 


86  INTRODUCTION. 

Korrrena  form  the  Asa-Faith  is  far  better  known. 
Here  we  have  for  our  guide  not  only  a  number  of 
religious  lays,  composed  while  the  Asa-Faith  still 
flourished,  but  even  a  complete  religious  system, 
written  down,  it  is  true,  in  Christian  times,  yet, 
.according  to  all  evidence,  without  the  Christian 
ideas  having  liad  any  especial  influence  in  the 
delineation,  or  having  materially  corruj^ted  it. 

The  lays  are  found  in  the  collection  usually  called 
The  Older  Edda  or  Scb7-7ui7uVs  Edda,  wliich  latter 
name  is  given  to  it  because  it  was  collected  by  the 
Icelander  Ssemund  the  Learned  (b.  1056,  d.  1133). 
The  Eeligious  System  is  found  in  the  Later  Edda. 
also  called  Snorri^s  Edda,  from  the  supposed  author 
or  compiler,  the  renowned  Saga-man  Snorri  Sturla- 
son  (b.  1178,  d.  1241). 

Upon  these  manuscripts  is  based  the  following 
brief  sketch  of  the  Religious  Doctrines  of  the  Asa- 
Faith.  But  a  delineation  of  the  Religious  System 
of  the  ISTorthmen  in  Heathendom  requires  not  mere- 
ly a  representation  of  the  predominant  dogmas  of 
the  Faith ;  it  must  likewise  embrace  an  interpi-eta- 
tion  of  them,  so  far  as  it  can  be  given  with  any  cer- 
tainty, and  finally  a  picture  of  the  religion  such  as 
it  actually  appeared  in  life, — in  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  in  the  religious  institutions,  in  the  popular 
notions  concerning  the  gods,  and  in  the  heathen 
superstition  generally. 

In  the  interpretation  of  the  Asa-myths,  very  im- 
portant services  have  been  rendered  by  many  learn- 
ed men  of  modern  times,  and  their  works  have  ])een 


INTEODrCTIOX.  '  87 

constantly  referred  to  in  that  part  of  our  undertak- 
ing, although  by  no  means  slavishly  followed. 

Tlie  most  important  modern  works,  which  present 
the  Asa-myths  with  their  interpretations,  are  the 
following : — 

Finn  Magnusen : — "  Oversrettelse  af  den  feldre 
Edda,"  1821-23,  4=  vols.  8vo. ;  "  Edda-Lgere,"  1824- 
2G,  4  vols.  8vo. ;  "  Lexicon  Mythologicum,"  append- 
ed to  the  third  part  of  the  great  Arna  Magnsean 
edition  of  the  Older  Edda. 

^.  F.  S.  Grundtvig : — "  l^ordens  Mythologie  eller 
Sindbilled-Sprog,  historisk  poetisk  udviklet."  2nd 
ed.     Copenh.  1836. 

M.  Hammerich  : — ^'  Om  Ragnaroks  Mytlien  og 
dens  Betydning  i  den  oldnordiske  Keligion."  Co- 
penh. 1836. 

]^.  M.  Petersen  : — ''  Danmarks  Historic  i  Heden- 
old."  Copenh.  1834-37.  3  parts.  The  Asa-Doc- 
trine is  treated  of  in  the  third  part. 

E.  G.  Geijer:— ''Svea-Eikes  Ilafder,"  Stockh. 
1825,  and  his  "Svenska  Folkets  Flistoria,"  Orebro, 
1832-36,  where  the  Asa-Doctrine  is  treated  of  in 
the  first  part. 

F.  J.  Mone  : — "  Geschichte  des  Heidenthums  im 
nordlichen  Europa,"  1822-23.  2  vols.  Svo.  The 
Asa-Doctrine  is  presented  in  the  first  part. 

Jac.  Grimm : — "  Deutsche  Mythologie."  Gottin- 
gen,  1835.     2nd  enlarged  edition.     Gottingen,  1844. 

P.  A.  Munch : — "  I^ordens  Gamle  Gude-  og  Helte- 
Sagn."     Christiania,  1840. 

For  a  representation  of  the  religious  life  of  the 
Northmen,  our  old  Korsc-Icelandic  inanuscripts  pre- 


OS  INTRODUCTION. 

sent  a  ricli  source,  wliicli  has  not  yet  been  fully  ex- 
hausted. 

It  is  the  Asa-Faith,  such  as  it  was  understood  and 
cherished  by  the  Northmen  of  Xorway  and  Iceland, 
which  the  Old-ISTorse  manuscripts  properly  present 
to  us,  and  from  this  point  of  view  it  shall  be  con- 
sidered here.  "We  have,  indeed,  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  other  two  bi-anches  of  the  Korrsena  family — 
the  Swedes  and  Danes — professed  in  the  main  points 
the  same  faith,  followed  the  same  religious  customs, 
and  had  the  same  religious  institutions;  but  we  do 
not  know,  with  certainty,  what  these  were  in  detail, 
for  tlie  reliable  inland  sources  of  information  are 
wanting;  and  although  the  ancient  Xorse-Icelaiidic 
manuscripts  not  unfrequently  treat  of  heathen-reli- 
gious affairs  in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  yet  it  is  only 
occasional,  and  is,  besides,  almost  always  such  that 
the  conception  is  evidently  I^orwegian,  and  the  de- 
lineation quite  too  much  adapted  to  the  existing  in- 
stitutions of  E'orway  for  us  to  draw  from  them  any 
decisive  conclusions. 

The  following  Exposition  will,  therefore,  more 
especially  embrace  the  Religious  Institutions  of  Xor- 
way  and  Iceland  during  heathen  times  ;  and,  as 
before  hinted,  it  will  be  divided  into  three  Parts : 
the  first  containing  the  Dogmas  of  the  Asa-Faith  • 
the  second,  the  Interpretation  of  the  Asa-Doctrines  ; 
the  third,  tlic  Manifestation  of  the  Asa-Faith  in  the 
Popular  Life  of  the  Northmen. 


I. 

DOGMAS   OF  THE   ASA-FAITH. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ORIGIN   OF   THE    WORLD. 

In  the  beginning  of  time  there  were  two  worlds  : 
in  the  South  w^as  Muspell,  light  and  flaming ;  over 
it  rules  Surtur,  who  sits  at  its  boundaries  w^ith  his 
flaming  sword;  in  the  North  was  Niflheim,  cold 
and  dark,  with  the  fountain  Hvergelmir  in  its  midst, 
where  the  Dragon  Xi5hogg  dwells.  Between  these 
worlds  was  Ginunga-gap — the  Yaw^ning  Chasm — 
still  as  the  windless  air.  From  Hvergelmir  flowed 
forth  ice-cold  venom-streams.  Hie  rime  from  these 
streams  met  in  Ginunga-gap  wdtli  Muspell's  sparks ; 
then  the  rime-drops  were  quickened  by  the  power 
of  the  heat,  and  the  Jotun  iTmir  came  into  being, 
who  of  himself  produced  a  race  of  evil  Jotuns — the 
Frost-Giants  or  Mountain-Giants. 

With  Tmir  came  to  life  the  cow  Au5humla,  by 
whose  milk  he  was  nourished.  The  cow  licked  the 
salt  rime-clumps,  and  then  came  forth  Buri,  a  great, 
a  beautiful,  and  mighty  being.     His  son  was  Bor,  and 


00  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

Bor's  sons,  by  the  Jutun-woman  Bestla,  Boltliorn's 
daughter,  were  Odin  (05inn),  Yili,  and  Ye.  Odin 
became  the  father  of  the  bright  and  beautiful  ^sir, 
the  ruling  Gods  of  Heaven  and  Earth  ;  therefore 
he  is  called  All-father  (Alfa5ir). 

The  sons  of  Bor  slew  the  giant  ^^mir,  and  in  his 
blood  the  whole  race  of  Frost-Giants  was  drowned, 
all  but  one  pair  who  escaped,  and  from  whom  new 
Jotun-races  descended.  Bor's  sons  carried  the  slain 
iTmir  out  into  the  middle  of  Ginunga-gap  ;  there 
they  made  the  earth  of  his  body,  the  sea  of  his 
blood,  the  mountains  of  his  bones,  and  the  trees  of 
his  hair ;  of  his  skull  they  created  the  sky,  which 
they  arched  high  above  the  earth  and  adorned  with 
sparks  from  Muspell ;  but  the  brain  they  scattered 
in  the  air  and  it  became  the  gloomy  clouds.  Around 
about  the  earth's  surface  they  caused  the  deep  sea  to 
flow,  and  upon  its  utmost  strand  the  Jotuns,  who  had 
escaped,  took  up  their  abodes  in  Jotunheim  and  tTt- 
gar6.  As  a  protection  against  them,  the  bland, 
creating  powers  made  from  Amir's  brows  a  breast- 
work around  the  inmost  earth — a  citadel  called 
Mi5gar5.  From  Heaven  to  Earth  they  set  up  the 
bridge  Bifrost,  or  the  Eainbow. 

The  black,  dark  ]N"iglit  (^ott),  of  Jotun  lineage, 
became  by  the  ^sir-son  Delling,  the  mother  of 
Day  (Dagr),  who  was  beautiful  as  his  father.  Odin 
placed  the  mother  and  son  in  the  heavens,  and  com- 
manded them  to  drive  every  day  and  night  (ddgn) 
over  the  earth.  Night  rides  before  with  the  horse 
Hrimfaxi  (Frost-mane),  who  every  morning  bedews 
the  earth  v/ith  the  foam  from  his  bits.     Day  follows 


ORIGIN   OF   THE  WORLD.  91 

after  witli  tlie  horse  Skinfaxi  (Shining-mane),  whose 
mane  scatters  light  over  air  and  earth. 

The  J^sir  created  Sol  and  Mani  (the  Sun  and 
Moon)  out  of  the  sparks  of  Muspell,  but  they  ap- 
pointed the  children  of  Mundilfori  to  drive  their 
chariots  across  the  heavens.  The  daughter  drives 
the  chariot  of  the  Sun,  but  the  son  drives  that  of  the 
Moon.  They  speed  swiftly  onward,  for  two  Jotuns 
in  the  guise  of  wolves  pursue  Sol  and  Mani  in  order 
to  devour  them. 

Dwarves  (Dvergar)  were  quickened  as  maggots 
in  "f  mir's  flesh.  By  the  command  of  the  Gods  they 
received  the  form  and  understanding  of  men ;  but 
their  abode  was  in  the  earth  and  the  rocks.  Four 
Dwarves — Austri,  Yestri,  l^orSri,  and  Su5ri— were 
appointed  by  the  Gods  to  bear  up  the  sky.  At  the 
northern  extremity  sits  the  Jotun  Ilrse-svelgur,  in 
the  guise  of  an  eagle;  his  wing-strokes  are  the 
cause  of  storms. 

There  were  not  yet  any  human  beings  upon  the 
earth,  when  once,  as  the  three  ^sir,  Odin,  Ha^nir, 
and  L65urr  were  walking  along  the  sea-shore, 
they  there  found  two  trees  and  created  from  them 
the  first  human  pair — the  man  Ask,  and  the  woman 
Embla.  Odin  gave  them  spirit,  Hasnir,  under- 
standing, and  L66urr  gave  blood  and  fair  complex- 
ion. The  newly-created  pair  received  Mi6gar5  of 
the  JEsiv  for  their  abode ;  and  from  Ask  and  Em- 
bla is  descended  the  whole  human  family. 


92  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

CHAPTER   II. 

PRESERVATION   OF   THE   WORLD. 

The  ash  Yggclrasill  is  the  noblest  of  all  trees ;  its 
evergreen  branches  encompass  all  the  world.  It 
grows  up  from  three  roots.  The  one  is  in  the  foun- 
tain Ilvergelmir  in  JSTiflheim,  at  which  the  dragon 
Ni5hogg  gnaws  ;  the  second  root  is  in  Jotunheim  ; 
the  third  with  the  ^sir  in  heaven.  In  the  top  of 
the  ash  sits  a  very  wise  eagle ;  four  harts  run  among 
its  branches  and  bite  off  the  buds ;  while  up  and 
down  the  trunk  goes  the  squirrel  Ratatosk,  which 
bears  words  of  malice  between  the  eagle  and  Xi6- 
hogg.  Under  the  root  which  shoots  up  from  Jotun- 
heim, is  the  well  of  the  wise  Jotun  Mimir.  Here  is 
kept  Odin's  eye,  which  he  pledged  for  a  drink  from 
the  w^ell ;  and  every  morning  Mimir  drinks  from 
his  glittering  horn  the  mead  which  flows  over 
Odin's  pledge.  Under  the  root  of  the  ash  which 
sprouts  from  heaven  is  the  sacred  Urdar-fount  (Ur5- 
•ar-brunnr),  by  which  the  Gods  have  their  judg- 
ment seat,  whither  they  ride  every  day  over  Bifrost. 
By  this  fountain  the  three  great  Kornir  have  their 
seat:  the  maidens  Ur5ur,  Yer6andi,  and  Skuld. 
They  nourish  the  tree  by  sprinkling  over  its  body 
with  the  purifying  waters  of  the  fountain.  They 
deal  out  life  and  rule  the  fates.  Their  messengers, 
now  good,  now  evil,  accompany  man  from  birth  till 
death,  and  create  his  good  and  evil  fate.  Nothing 
can  change  the  doom  of  the  Norns. 


THE   GODS   OF  THE   NOETH.  93 

CHAPTER   HI. 

THE  GODS  AND  THEIK  ABODES. 

In  heaven  is  Asgar5,  the  abode  of  the  Gods.  In 
its  midst  is  the  Field  of  Ida  (ISa-voUr),  the  Assem- 
bling-place of  the  Gods,  and  Odin's  High-Seat  11115- 
skjalf,  from  whence  he  looks  forth  ^ver  all  the 
worlds.  But  above  the  heaven  of  the  ^sir  reaches 
ja  higher  heaven,  and  in  the  highest  stands  the  im- 
perishable gold-roofed  hall,  Gimli,  brighter  than  the 
sun. 

Odin  or  Alfa5ir  is  the  highest  and  eldest  of  the 
^sir;  his  wife  is  Friga,  the  daughter  of  Fjorgyn; 
from  them  descends  the  race  of  ^Esir.  Odin's 
hall  is  the  great  Yalhalla  (Yalhull).  Spears  sup- 
port its  ceiling,  with  shields  it  is  roofed,  and 
coats  of  mail  adorn  its  benches.  Thither,  and 
to  Yingolf,  the  hall  of  the  Goddesses,  Odin  invites 
all  men  wounded  by  arms,  all  in  battle  fallen; 
therefore  he  is  called  YalfaSir,  the  Father  of  the 
Slain;  and  his  invited  guests  are  called  Einherjar. 
It  is  their  pastime  to  fight  and  slay  each  other  every 
day ;  but  they  revive  again  before  evening,  and 
ride  home  reconciled  to  Yalhalla,  where  they  are 
refreshed  with  the  flesh  of  the  boar  Ssehrimnir,  and 
where  the  Yalkyrjur  reach  them  mead.  By  the 
side  of  Odin  stand  two  wolves,  Geri  and  Freki ; 
upon  his  shoulders  sit  two  ravens,  Huginn  and  Mu- 
ninn,  which  regularly  fly  out  and  retui'n  with  tidings 
5* 


94:  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

from  the  wliolo  world.  His  liorse  is  the  gray  eiglit- 
footed  Sleipnir.  Odin's  names  are  manifold ;  .for 
lie  never  calls  himself  by  the  same  name  when  he 
journeys  among  the  people. 

Thor  (J)6rr)  is  the  second  of  the  ^Esir,  a  son  of 
Odin,  and  his  own  daughter  Jor5  (Earth).  lie  is 
the  strongest  of  the  Gods ;  his  dwelling  is  Thru5- 
vangar  or  Thrii5heim;  his  hall  the  immense  Bil- 
skirnir.  To  him  come  bondsmen  after  death.  Thor 
drives  in  a  car  v/hicli  is  drawn  by  two  goats,  and  is 
therefore  called  Okn-J)6rr — tlie  Driving  Thor.  He 
is  also  called  H16rri5i — the  Fire- Charioteer.  Tha 
mountains  shake  and  are  riven  asunder,  and 
the  earth  burns  beneath  his  chariot.  Fire  flashes 
from  his  eyes  w^hen  he  is  angry.  The  Belt  of 
Strength  (megin-gjor5)  redoubles  his  Asa-might. 
Unceasingly  he  fights  against  the  Jotuns,  who  trem- 
ble at  his  hammer  Mjolnir,  smithied  by  skillful 
Dwarves.  His  wife  is  Sif,  with  golden  hair.  The 
boy  Thjalfi  and  the  girl  Koskva,  brother  and  sister, 
2:0  w^th  him  on  his  travels. 

Baldur  is  a  son  of  Odin  and  Friga.  He  is  so 
beautiful  that  all  things  are  made  light  by  him ;  he 
is  beloved  by  all  and  is  the  Comforter  of  the  unfor- 
tunate. His  wife  is  "Joanna  and  his  dwellhig  is 
Brei6ablik,  where  nothing  impure  is  found. 

Njor6  was  born  in  Yanaheim  among  the  wise 
Vanir,  but  was  received  among  the  ./Esir  when  the 
Yanir,  in  a  treaty  with  the  latter,  gave  him  as  a 
hostage  and  received  Hsenir  in  his  stead.  Kjor6 
rules  the  course  of  the  winds,  stills  the  sea  and  fire, 
and  deals  out  riches  among  men,     lie  is  invoked  in 


THE    GODS    OF   THE   NORTH.  95 

Sea-faring  and  Fishing.  His  wife  is  Ska6i,  daugli- 
ter  of  the  Jotun  Thjassi.  But  :Njor5  and  Ska5i 
agree  not  together.  Njor5  dwells  in  Xoatnn,  by 
the  sea;  Ska5i  keeps  to  her  father's  dwelling  at 
Thrymheim,  where  she  runs  upon  snow-shoes  over 
the  mountains,  and  shoots  the  wild  beasts  with  her 
bow. 

Frey  is  the  son  of  Njor5,  and  rules  over  rain 
and  sunshine  and  the  earth's  fruitfulness.  He  is 
invoked  for  fruitful  seasons,  for  peace  and  riches. 
He  is  bland  and  good  ;  he  causes  sorrow  to  no  one, 
but  delivers  the  bondsmen  from  their  chains.  His 
dwelling  is  Alfheim.  He  drives  with  the  boar 
Gullinbursti  (Golden  Bristles),  or  sails  in  the  noble 
ship  Ski5bla5nir,  a  work  of  the  Dwarves.  In  order 
to  obtain  the  Jotun-daughter  Ger5a,  whom  he  loved, 
he  gave  away  his  good  sword,  and  hence  he  is 
weaponless  in  the  ^sir's  last  battle. 

Tyr,  the  One-Handed,  is  the  boldest  among  the 
^Esir ;  brave  men  are  to  invoke  him. 

Bragi,  with  the  flowing  beard,  a  son  of  Odin,  is 
the  God  of  Poetry.  His  wife  is  Iduna,  who  keeps 
the  apples  of  which  the  Gods  partake,  that  they 
may  never  grow  old. 

Heimdall,  the  white  God  with  the  golden  teeth, 
the  son  of  nine  Jotun-virgins,  is  the  Watcher  of  the 
Gods,  and  dwells  in  Himinbjorg,  which  stands 
where  Bifrost's  bridge  approaches  Heaven.  He  is 
more  watchful  than  a  bird,  and  sees  a  hundred 
miles  away.  When  he  blows  in  his  trumpet  Gjal- 
larhorn  it  resounds  throughout  all  worlds. 

The  rest  of  the  J^sir  are :   the  blind,  powerful 


96  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

Ho5ur,  a  son  of  Odin ;  Yi5arr,  with  iron  shoes, 
Odin's  son  by  the  Jotnn- woman  Gri5a,  is  called  the 
Silent  God.  Next  to  Thor,  he  is  the  strongest,  and 
dwells  in  the  desert  Landvi5i.  Ali  or  Yali,  the 
snre  marksman,  is  a  son  of  Odin  and  Einda,  born 
in  the  western  hall.  Ullnr,  Thor's  step-son,  the  God 
of  hunting  and  snow-shoe  running,  is  invoked  for 
success  in  the  duel ;  his  dwelling  is  in  iTdalir.  For- 
seti,  the  son  of  Baldur,  settles  all  disputes  among 
gods  and  men ;  he  dwells  in  Glitnir,  whose  roof  of 
silver  rests  on  golden  columns. 

Of  the  Goddesses  (Asynjur,  sing.  Asynja)  Friga 
is  the  highest.  She  is  the  daughter  of  Fjorgyn,  and 
the  wife  of  Odin.  Her  dwelling  place  is  in  Fen- 
salir. 

Xext  to  her  is  Freyja,  iSTjorS's  daughter,  sister  of 
Frey,  the  Goddess  of  Love.  Two  cats  draw  her 
chariot.  Her  dwelling  is  Folkvangar,  her  hall, 
Sessrymnir.  When  she  rides  out  to  battle,  she 
shares  half  the  fallen  with  Odin.  Her  husband 
05ur  travels  far  away;  Freyja  weeps  golden  tears 
of  longing  after  him.  She  is  called  Yanadis — the 
Yanir-goddess,  and  has  many  other  names  besides, 
which  she  received  as  she  wandered  about  amono; 
unknown  tribes,  seeking  her  lost  (55ur. 

Saga  dwells  in  the  great  Sokkvabekk  imder  the 
cool  waves ;  there  she  drinks  with  Odin  every  day 
from  golden  vessels. 

There  are  besides  these  many  Goddesses  of  inferior 
dignity,  some  in  Friga's  service  and  some  in  Frey- 
ja's. 

Tte  Yalkyrjur  are  sent  by  Odin  to  every  battle, 


THE   GODS    OF   THE    NORTH.  97 

to  choose  guests  for  Yallialla  and  to  turn  the  vic- 
tory. Among  their  number  is  Skuld,  the  youngest 
of  the  Nornir.  Surrounded  by  lightning's  glare  and 
bearing  bright  spears,  they  ride  in  bloody  armor 
through  the  air  and  over  the  seas.  When  their 
steeds  shake  their  manes,  dew  falls  in  the  deep  val- 
leys and  hail  upon  the  high  forests. 

The  ruler  of  the  sea  is  ^gir,  also  called  Gymir 
and  Hler.  He  is  a  Jotun,  though  a  friend  of  the 
jEsiv.  When  the  latter  visit  him,  his  hall  is  illumi- 
nated with  shining  gold.  His  wife  is  Ran.  She  has 
a  net  with  which  she  catches  seafarers.  The  daugh- 
ters of  iEgir  and  Ran  are  the  Waves :  they  are  un- 
friendly to  voyagers  and  strive  to  overturn  ships. 


98  RELIGION   OF   THE   NOETHMEN. 


CHAPTEE    lY. 

PROPAGATION     OF     EVIL  ;     DECLINE     AND     FALL     OF    THE 
WORLD. 

In  the  first  ages  of  the  world  there  was  a  glorious 
time  of  peace  among  the  gods  and  men.  But 
Jotun-women  came  to  Asgard,  and  the  ^sir  formed 
connections  with  them.  Then  happiness  was  de- 
stroyed ;  the  air  was  poisoned  with  wickedness,  and 
strife  was  begmi  in  heaven  and  on  the  earth,  to 
continue  until  the  destruction  of  both.  The  Jotuns 
attack  the  ^Esir,  now  with  strength  and  noAV  with 
cunning :  nought  but  the  power  of  Thor  is  able  to 
prevail  over  them. 

The  author  of  the  greatest  misfortunes  which 
have  befallen  the  gods  and  men,  is  Loki  or  Loptr. 
He  is  of  Jotun  descent,  but  was  received  among  the 
JEsir,  and  even  in  the  morning  of  time  he  was  the 
foster-brother  of  Odin.  He  is  of  a  fair  countenance 
but  evil  in  disposition.  He  is  called  the  Slanderer 
of  the  Gods,  the  source  of  deceitful  cunning,  a  dis- 
grace among  gods  and  men.  He  accompanied  the 
iEsir,  and  they  often  made  use  of  his  strength  and 
cunning  ;  but  he  still  oftener  acted  in  concert  with 
the  Jotuns  for  the  destruction  of  the  JEsir. 

Loki  had  three  children  by  the  Jotun-woman 
Angurbo5a :  the  Fenris-wolf,  the  World-serpent 
(Mi5gar5s-ormr,  also  called  Jormungandr),  and  Hel, 


PROPAGATION   OF  EVIL.  99 

or  Death.  Tlie  ^sir  knew  tliat  this  ofFspriug  of 
Loki  should  bring  upon  them  great  calamities; 
they  therefore  bound  the  wolf  on  a  desert  island, 
and  set  a  sword  within  its  outstretched  jaws ;  the 
Mi5gar5-serpent  they  cast  out  into  the  deep  sea, 
where  it  encircles  the  whole  earth's  surface  and 
bites  itself  in  the  tail.  But  Hel  was  hurled  head- 
long down  into  Mflheim,  and  Al-father  commanded 
that  all  who  died  of  sickness  and  old  a2:e  should  o-o 
to  her.  Her  dwelling,  Helheim,  is  large  but  fright- 
ful. She  is  half  pale-blue  and  half  white,  grim  and 
ferocious  of  aspect. 

The  greatest  grief  was  brought  by  Loki  into  the 
whole  world,  when  he  by  his  deceit  slew  Baldur  the 
Good.  The  ^sir  knew  that  danger  was  threaten- 
ing Baldur,  and  his  mother  Friga  took  oath  of  all 
Xature  that  nothing  should  harm  him.  But  she 
forgot  a  tender  twig,  the  mistletoe.  Loki  tore  this 
up  and  persuaded  the  blind  Hodur  to  throw  it  at 
his  brother  Baldur  in  sport.  Loki  himself  guides 
Hodur's  hand  and  Baldur  is  killed.  The  ^sir  are 
struck  dumb  with  grief  and  horror.  At  last  Friga 
sends  Odin's  swain  Hermo5  to  Hel,  in  order  to  ran- 
som Baldur  from  Helheim,  and  Hel  promises  to 
release  him  if  all  Xature  bewails  his  death.  It  is 
also  done ;  men  and  animals,  the  earth  and  even 
the  solid  rocks  shed  tears.  All  but  an  old  Jotun 
woman,  who  will  not  weep,  and  therefore  Hel  keeps 
back  her  prey.  But  this  Jotun  woman  was  the  dis- 
guised Loki,  who  was  the  greatest  cause  of  evil 
among  the  JEsir.  Xanna,  the  wife  of  Baldur,  died 
of  grief,  and  was  burned  upon  her  husband's  funeral 


100  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

pile  ;  but  Odin's  son,  Yali,  although  but  one  night 
old,  avenged  Baldur's  death  by  slaying  Hodur,  his 
murderer. 

Loki,  pursued  by  the  yEsir,  now  fled  up  to  a 
mountain  from  which  he  could  see  to  all  corners  of 
the  world,  and  when  he  saw  the  ^sir  drawing  near 
in  their  search  after  him,  he  changed  himself  into 
the  likeness  of  a  salmon,  and  hid  himself  under  a 
waterfall.  But  Odin  saw  him  from  Hli5skjalf,  and 
the  iEsir  caught  him.  They  then  bound  him  with 
the  intestines  of  his  own  son  ISTari,  upon  three  sharp 
rocks  in  a  dark  cave,  and  Ska5i  fastened  a  venomous 
serpent  over  his  head,  whose  poison  should  drip 
down  into  his  face.  Sigyn,  his  faithful  wife,  stands 
beside  him  and  holds  a  vessel  under  the  venom- 
drops ;  but  when  it  is  full  and  she  goes  away  to 
empty  it,  the  venom  drips  down  into  Loki's  face, 
and  then  he  writhes  himself  so  that  the  whole  earth 
shakes.  Thence  come  the  earthquakes.  Thus  shall 
Loki  lie  bound  until  the  end  of  the  world. 


DESTRUCTION    OF   THE    WORLD.  101 


CIIAPTEE    Y. 

THE    DESTRUCTION    OF   THE    GODS    AND   THE    WORLD. 

Upon  a  time  the  world  shall  be  convulsed,  and 
the  JEsir  destroyed  in  Kagnarokk,  or  the  Twilight 
of  the  Gods.  The  growing  depravity  and  strife  in 
the  world  proclaim  the  approach  of  this  great  event. 
Winters  rage  without  any  intervening  summer, 
with  furious  storms,  with  snows  and  darkness.  The 
sun  and  moon  are  swallowed  by  the  pursuing  Jotun- 
wolves,  and  heaven  is  sprinkled  with  blood.  The 
bright  stars  vanish,  the  earth  shakes,  and  the  moun- 
tains are  hurled  together  with  a  crash.  Then  all 
bonds  and  chains  are  broken,  and  the  Fenris-wolf 
runs  loose.  The  Mi5gar5-serpent  writhes  in  Jotun- 
rage,  and  seeks  the  land  across  the  tumultuous 
waves.  The  ship  Xaglfar  flies  and  bears  over  the 
sea  the  Frost-giant's  hosts,  led  on  by  the  Jotun 
Hrym.  The  loosened  Loki  also  comes  at  the  head 
of  the  troops  of  ITel.  The  Fenris-wolf  rushes  forth 
with  outstretched  jaws,  w^hich  fill  the  space  between 
heaven  and  earth ;  the  Mi5gar5-serpent  on  its  side 
blows  out  venom  over  air  and  sea.  In  the  midst  of 
this  confusion  the  heavens  are  rent  asunder,  and 
through  the  opening  the  sons  of  Muspell  ride  forth 
in  radiant  array.  At  their  head  is  Surtur,  sur- 
rounded with  flames ;  his  fire-sword  fiashes  brighter 


102  KELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

than  the  sun.    They  all  haste  on  toward  the  battle- 
field, the  immense  plains  of  Vigri5. 

Heimdall  now  arises  and  blows  with  all  his 
strength  in  Gjallar-horn.  The  gods  all  assemble 
together.  Yggdrasill's  ash  is  shaken,  and  every- 
thing in  heaven  and  earth  is  filled  with  terror.  The 
u^Esir  and  Einherjar  arm  themselves  and  rush  forth 
to  battle.  Odin  rides  at  their  head  and  meets  the 
Fenris-wolf ;  Thor  fights  at  his  side  against  the  Mi6" 
gar5-serpent.  Freyr  combats  with  Surtur,  but  falls, 
for  he  has  no  sword.  Loki  and  Heimdall  slay  each 
other.  Thor  kills  the  Mi5gar5-serpent,  but  it  vomits 
forth  upon  him  a  flood  of  venom.  He  gives  way 
nine  steps  backwards,  but  falls  dead  to  the  ground. 
The  Fenris-wolf  swallows  Odin,  but  falls  in  turn 
before  the  strong  Yi5arr,  who  splits  its  ja^vs  asun- 
der. Tlien  Surtur  slings  his  fire  over  the  world. 
Smoke  wreathes  up  around  the  all-nourishing  tree, 
the  high  flames  play  against  the  heavens,  and  earth, 
consumed,  sinks  down  beneath  the  sea. , 


KEGENEEATION  OF  THE  WORLD.  103 


CIIAPTEE  Yl. 

GIMLI    AND   NASTEOND;     EEGENEEATION   OF   THE   WOELD. 


The  gold-roofed  Gimli  wliich  shines  brighter  than 
the  sun,  passes  not  away  in  the  great  world-confla- 
gration. After  Eagnarokk  the  good  shall  all  be 
gathered  thither  to  rejoice  for  evermore.  But  the 
wicked  shall  be  hurled  down  into  E'astrond — the 
Strand  of  the  Dead — which  lies  around  Hvergel- 
mir.  Tliere  shall  they  wade  through  thick  venom- 
streams  and  be  tormented  by  the  dragon  Ni5hogg. 

But  the  world  is  not  destroyed  forever.  A  new 
earth,  eternally  green  and  fair,  shall  shoot  forth  out 
of  the  sea.  YiSarr  and  Yali,  who  have  lived 
through  the  fire  and  the  flood,  are  joined  by  Thor's 
sons  Mo5i  and  Magni,  who  have  their  father's  ham- 
mer; and  Baldur  and  Hodur  return  from  the 
abodes  of  Hel.  All  assemble  and  converse  together 
of  former  things ;  they  find  the  golden  tablets  which 
the  -^sir  once  possessed,  and  they  adopt  their 
ancient  customs  of  the  plains  of  Ida.  The  Sun 
before  her  destruction  bore  a  daughter  who,  more 
beautiful  than  her  mother,  wanders  in  her  path 
through  the  renovated  world.  Lif  and  Lifthrasir 
lay  hidden  in  Ho5mimir's  wood  during  the  confla- 
gration, and  had  the  morning  dew  for  their  food ; 
from  them  shall  descend  a  new  race  of  men  who 


104  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

shall  spread  over  the  whole  earth.     All  evil  shall  v 
cease,  and  no  sorrow  nor  trouble  shall  any  more  pre- 
vail upon  the  new-born  earth. 

Then  shall  the  Mighty  One  come  from  above,  he 
who  rules  over  all,  whose  name  man  dares  not  to 
utter.  He  comes  in  his  power  to  tlie  great  judg- 
ment-seat ;  he  will  appease  all  strife  and  establish  a 
holy  peace  which  shall  endure  eternally.  But  the 
foul  dragon,  the  venom-spotted  Xi5hoggr,  flies  away 
over  the  plains  and  sinks  out  of  sight,  bearing  death 
upon  his  wings. 


II. 

EXPOSITION  OF  THE  ASA  DOCTRINE. 
CHAPTEE  YII. 

OF     THE     INTERPRETATION     OF     THE     ASA     DOCTRINE     IN 
GENERAL. 

Concerning  the  origin  and  significance  of  the  Asa 
doctrine,  there  lias  been,  and  still  is,  a  great  variety 
of  opinions. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  some  regard  it  as  a  monotheis- 
tic system  in  tlie  beginning,  which  degenerated  into 
polytheism  by  the  extravagant  fancies  of  the  hnman 
nnderstanding.  They  look  for  its  first  basis  either 
in  an  immediate  divine  revelation,  imparted  to  man- 
kind in  the  beginning,  and  consequently  common  to 
all  nations  and  all  religions ; — or  else  in  a  pnrer  re- 
ligion, which  in  a  remote  antiquity  was  peculiar  to 
the  first  progenitors  of  the  Iranic  or  Indo-European 
race,  and  which,  under  many  corruptions  and  de- 
teriorations, was  transmitted  through  the  various 
branches  of  the  race,  so  that  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples are  more  or  less  distinctly  seen  in  the  reli- 
gious systems  of  all  the  heathen  tribes  descended 


106  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

from  tliem  ;  but  liow  this  purer  primitive  Iranic  re- 
ligion originated — whether  by  immediate  revelation 
or  by  the  continual  development  of  the  human  soul 
— is  not  taken  into  consideration.  Others  assume 
that  the  Asa  doctrine,  as  an  independent  whole,  was 
developed  among  the  Germanic  classes  from  the 
very  lowest  point  of  polytheism  into  a  religious  sys- 
tem in  which  polytheism  was  inclining  to  yield 
before  monotheistic  ideas,  which  the  clearer  heads 
among  the  people  h^d  gradually  risen  np  to  by  their 
own  strength  of  mind  and  by  the  natural  progress 
of  polytheism. 

In  regard  to  the  real  object  of  the  Asa  myths, — 
some  have  sought  it  in  the  history  of  the  Germanic 
race,  especially  of  the  Xorrsena  branch,  others 
in  the  general  phenomena  of  N"ature,  others  again 
in  man's  peculiar  nature,  especially  in  a  moral 
point  of  view.  There  has  thus  been  developed 
a  historical,  a  physical,  and  an  ethical  inter2:)re- 
tation ;  but  seldom  has  any  interpreter  followed  one 
of  these  directions  exclusively,  the  greater  number 
have  united  them,  with  one  or  another  of  them  the 
predominant. 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  outer  form  of  the  Asa 
doctrine,  some  consider  it  a  complete  allegory, 
whose  images,  even  in  the  minutest  particulars, 
they  strive  to  trace  back  to  reality,  while  others 
seek  only  to  unravel  the  prominent  ideas  of  the 
myths  from  their  poetic  dress,  believing  it  in  vain 
to  attempt  to  trace  the  images  through  all  the  mazes 
of  fantasy. 

As  to  the  first  theory,  we  find  a  certain  funda- 


INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  ASA  DOCTRINE.    107 

mental  idea  pervading  all  the  known  religions 
systems  belonging  to  the  people  of  the  Iranic 
race,  which  points  towards  a  common  origin 
for  them.  The  Asa  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  the 
gods  and  the  world,  of  the  strife  between  Good  and 
Evil,  of  the  destruction  and  regeneration  of  the 
world  and  the  gods,  if  we  do  not  too  closely  follow 
the  figures  by  which  it  is  expressed,  has  an  unmis- 
takable similarity  to  the  ancient  Indian  and  Median 
myths  concerning  the  same  subject, — a  similarity 
which  we  cannot  well  explain  satisfactorily  except 
by  their  origin  in  a  common  source.  "We  may 
therefore  assume  that  the  Germanic  race,  when  it 
separated  from  kindred  races  as  an  independeiit 
whole,  had  already  conceived — althougli  indistinct- 
ly— those  ideas  which  it  afterward  expressed  and 
farther  developed  in  accordance  with  its  peculiar 
character,  and  connected  with  a  mythology  built 
upon  its  own  notions  of  the  world,  which  gradually 
obscured  the  monotheistic  ideas — at  least  with  the 
mass — and  set  them  in  the  background  for  ]3oly- 
theism.  The  Asa  doctrine,  in  its  peculiarity,  seems\ 
thus  to  have  sprung  wp  with  the  Germanic  race  ) 
from  certain  fundamental  religious  ideas  common  to  ' 
the  whole  Iranic  familj^ 

Concerning  the  second  theory  it  may  be  said  that 
the  historical  interpretation  of  the  Asa  doctrine  is 
very  ancient.  The  assumption  of  a  historical  Odin 
and  historical  ^sir,  of  an  earthly  Asgard  on  the 
plains  of  the  TanaTs,  &c.,  had  doubtless  its  first 
basis  in  the  efforts  of  the  JSTorthmen  and  the  Ice- 
landers to  impart  to  the  Asa  doctrine — ^which  was 


108  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

SO  important  to  their  Skaldic  minstrelsy — such  a 
turn  that,  without  offense  to  Christianity,  it  might 
be  kept  in  remembrance  and  made  use  of  by  the 
Skalds.  Snorri  Sturlason's  influence  opened  the 
way  for  this  interpretation  among  the  historians 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  who  did  not,  however, 
content  themselves  with  one  historical  Odin,  but 
assumed  three  or  four  successive  ones,  and  consider- 
ed the  ^sir  sometimes  as  a  tribe  of  people,  some- 
times as  an  order  of  priesthood,  who  wandered  into 
the  JSTorth  from  the  banks  of  the  Tana'is.  A  stricter 
criticism  of  the  sources  of  our  ancient  history  has, 
in  latter  times,  revealed  these  errors  and  thereby 
given  a  death-blow  to  the  purely  historical  interpre- 
tation of  the  Asa  doctrine.  In  its  stead,  the  physi- 
cal interpretation  of  the  Asa  myths  has  become  the 
prevailing  one,  and  it  seems  indeed  to  present 
itself  to  every  unprejudiced  mind.  Even  the 
mythic  names  point  distinctly  in  this  direction. 
The  Asa  doctrine  expresses  the  conception  which  a 
powerful  and  imaginative,  though  uncultivated 
people  formed  of  diviiuty  through  its  diversified 
activity  in  Nature, — its  conception  of  the  super- 
sensual  in  a  bodily  and  human  form. 

Finally,  as  to  the  third  theory :  it  seems  to  lie  in 
tlie  character  of  a  greater  part  of  the  Asa  myths, 
that  they  are  not  allegories  representing  ideas  clear 
to  the  mind  which  first  set  them  forth,  and  were 
clothed  in  a  dress  perceptible  to  the  senses  merely 
to  be  made  intelligible  to  the  mass  ; — consequently 
we  cannot  pursue  the  figure  to  the  utmost  in  order 
to  seek  in  it  a  real  significance.     The  figure  may 


INTERPKETATION   OF  THE   ASA   DOCTRINE.         109 

liere  in  most  cases  be  assumed  as  co-existent 
with  the  idea  itself,  and  to  be  ahnost  as  real  as 
it.  It  thus  went  on  contimially  j^roducing  of 
itself  new  figures,  often  bearing  no  relation  to 
the  original  idea,  and  to  which  w^e  may  ^pply 
our  skill  in  vain,  in  the  attempt  to  find  a  deeper 
meaning. 

On  these  views  of  the  Asa  Faith  in  general,  are 
based  the  following  interpretations  of  its  most 
prominent  myths. 


110  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 


cHAPraR  vni. 

OF   THE   THEORY    OF    CREATION. 

The  Asa  doctrine  supposes  two  primitive  worlds ; 
the  Fire  World- — Mnspell  or  Muspellieim- — in  tlic 
south,  which  in  the  Eddas  signifies  above,  and  the 
dark,  Mist- World — j^iflheimf — in  the  north,  or  he- 
low.  In  the  former  sits  enthroned  the  Fire-Being 
Surtur  \X  in  the  deepest  ahvss  of  the  hatter,  in  Ilver- 
gelmirg — the  A^icient  Cauldron,  dwells  the  Dragon 
]N'i5hogg|| — the  Gloomy  Hewer  or  Gnaioer — two 
primitive  beings,  each  in  his  ]iatnre  corresponding 
to  the  world  in  which  he  rules ;  the  former  light  and 

*  Probably  derived  from  mtigr,  a  crowd;  and  spell,  cognate 
with  spilla,  to  destroy;  whence  it  may  signify  the  Destruction  of 
the  Multitude ;  in  reference  to  the  agency  in  destroying  the  human 
world.  Grimm  points  out  the  name  in  the  Old-German  under  the 
.forms  muspilli,  mudspelli,  denoting  a  general  conflagration,  which 
shows  that  the  Germanic  race  had  in  the  main  points  the  same 
views  as  the  Norrsena. 

f  Nifl,  cogD.  with  the  Germ.  Is'ebel,  Lat,  nebula;  hence,  the 
Nebulous  Home. 

X  For  Svertir,  from  sverta,  to  blacken,  from  his  fire-like,  scorch- 
ing nature.  According  to  Grimm,  Surtr  is  cogn.  with  svartr; 
Smd.  svart;  Ban.  sort;  Goth,  svarts:  Germ,  schwarz;  Evgl. 
swart,  swarth}^ 

§  liver,  a  cauldron;  also,  a  hot  spring.  Grimm  derives  gclmir 
from  gjalla,  to  resound ;  cogn.  with  A.-S.  giellan  ;  Engl.  yell. 

11  From  hoggva,  to  hew;  and  ni5,  obscurity,  or  ni6,  malignity. 


THEOEY   OF   CREATION.  Ill 

life-giving,  tlie  latter  dark  and  deadly.  From  tlie 
Mist- World's  dripping  coolness  (Elivagar,*  Venom 
streams^  Hail  streams)^  rise  nj)  frost-vapors.  In  tlie 
vast  empty  space  lying  between  the  two  worlds,  in 
Ginnnga-gapjf  tlie  Yawning  Ahjss,  these  vapors 
meet  the  sparks  of  the  Fire- World.  The  dead,  cold 
matter  is  quickened  by  the  power  of  Fire,  and  the 
huge,  shapeless  Jotun:i:  iTmirg — the  Roaring^  Foam- 
ing— comes  forth,  the  first,  chaoticf  World-mass. 
This  living  mass  produces  of  himself  many  similar, 
frost-cold,  stone-like,  shapeless  beings,  the  Hrim- 
thursarll  and  Bergrisarif — Frost  giants  and  Moun- 
tain giants.  In  all  these  forms  Evil  is  still  predomi- 
nant. All  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  world  of 
Cold  and  Darkness.  It  is  only  the  lower,  the  jphysi- 
cal  world-life  which  moves  in  them. 

But  a  better  being,  although  of  animal  nature — 
the  Cow  Au5humla"'^* — came  into  existence  with  the 
first  Frost-Jotun,  as  his  nurse.     This  j)ower,  which 

*  £l,  a  shower,  hail  shower ;  vdgr,  a  stream. 

f  Gin,  a  yawning,  an  abyss;  gina,  to  gape, 

\  Jotiinn,  iotunn,  a  giant,  cogn.  with  eta ;  A.-8,  etan,  to  eat ; 
corresponding  Old-Germanic  terms:  A.-8.  eoten;  L.  Germ,  etan  ; 
//.  Germ,  ezan ;  Goth,  itans ;  Old  Engl,  etin,  ettin ;  Scotch,  ettyn, 
eyttyn. 

§  ^m,  ymia,  to  roar ;  ymr,  a  confused  sound,  as  the  clang  of 
metals  or  the  rustling  of  trees, 

II  J)urs,  perhaps  cogn.  with  ]?urr,  dry,  barren  {Germ,  diirr);  the 
corresponding  Anglo-Saxon  name  was  J)yrs  ;  //.  Germ,  durs,  or  turs ; 
Goth.  |)aurs. 

^  Risi,  a  giant ;  from  ris,  risa,  to  rise,  tower  up. 

**  Or  AuShumbla.  Some  derive  it  from  au5r,  rich ;  and  hum, 
moisture;  others  from  au«5r,  void,  vacant  {Dan.  ode);  and  ln5ni, 
darkness. 


112  RELIGION    OF   THE   NOETHMEN. 

nourishes  the  chaotic  World-mass,  calls  fortli  at  the 
same  time  by  its  refining  agency — by  licking  the 
Kime-clnmps — a  higher  spiritual  World-life,  which 
imfolds  itself  through  several  links — through  Buri 
the  Bearing^  and  Burr-"  tlie  Born — until  it  has 
gained  power  sufficient  to  overcome  chaotic  matter 
— to  kill  "f  mir  and  his  offspring. 

Tliis  high  conquering  World-life  is  Divinity  itself, 
which  now^  gOes  forth  as  creative  power  in  a  three- 
fold form — as  Spirit,  Will  or  Power,  and  Holiness — 
in  the  brothers  05inn,  Yili,  and  Ye.  The  Spirit 
quickens,  the  ^Vill  arranges,  and  Holiness  banishes 
the  Impure  and  Evil.f  It  is,  however,  only  in  the 
creation  of  the  world  that  these  three  beings  are 
represented  as  cooperating.  Yili  and  Ye  are  not 
mentioned  again ;  they  are  blended  together  again 
in  the  all-embracing  World-spirit — in  Odin.  He  is 
the  Essence  of  the  World,  the  Almighty  As ;  he 
alone  is  Al-father,  from  whom  all  the  other  supe- 
rior, world-directing  beings,  the  JSsir,  are  de- 
scended.:!: 

*  Buri,  burr,  bor,  derived  from  bera,  to  bear,  bring  fortli ;  cogn. 
with  A.-8.  beran:  whence  also  the  Danish  Barn  and  Scottish 
bairn,  a  child. 

f  (35inn;  A.-S.  Voden;  L.  Germ.  Wodan  ;  //.  Ger77h  "Wuotan  ; 
Goth.  Vodans ;  Frls.  Wdda.  The  word  is  cogn.  with  Te5,  6C>,  va6a, 
to  wade,  go  through,  and  with  6(5r,  mind,  understanding  ;  hence  de- 
notes Spirit,  the  All-pervading  (Dent.  Mythol.).  Vili  signifies  Will ; 
Ve,  holiness. 

X  As,  plur.  yEsir;  fern.  Asjnja,  pi.  Asynjur.  The  correspond- 
ing Germanic  names  are:  A.-S.  63.  pi.  ds;  Goth.  ans.  pi.  anseis; 
cogn.  with  the  Celtic  Es,  Esus;  Old  Etruscan,  yEs,  Ais,  .^sar; 
Pers.  Ized.     Orimm  remarks  that  a  cognate  expression  was  in  all 


THEORY   OF   CREATION.  113 

By  the  creation  the  Elements  are  separated — 
Amir's  body  is  parceled  out — and  organic  life  begins. 
But  the  chaotic  powers,  though  conquered,  are  not 
destroyed, — a  Jotun  escapes,  and  from  him  come 
forth  new  Jutun  races.  Disturbing  and  deadly  in- 
Huences  are  perceptible  everywhere  in  Nature. 
They  are  the  manifestations  of  the  hostile  disposi- 
tion of  the  Jutuns  toward  the  JEsir,  and  of  their 
struggles  to  destroy  the  work  of  the  latter.  The 
Jotuns  have  been  forced  to  fly  to  the  outermost 
deserts  aroimd  the  surface  of  the  earth — to  tJtgar5, 
the  Outer  Ward  or  inclosure — and  h^re  they  have 
their  proper  home — Jotunheim;  but  they  manage 
also  to  sneak  in  within  the  barrier  which  the  ^sir 
made  as  a  defense  for  the  earth,  and  they  get  into 
Mi5gar5.^  They  dwell  here  in  the  rugged  moun- 
tains, in  the  ice-clad  Jokulls,  and  in  the  barren  des- 
erts, everywhere  where  any  unfruitfulness  prevails. 
Their  agency  is  perceptible  in  the  devastating 
storms,  caused  by  the  wing-strokes  of  the  Jotun- 
eagle  in  the  North,!  it  is  felt  in  winter's  cold,  in 

the  Old-Germanic  Languages  {Deitt.  Myth.  p.  22).  It  is  probably 
cogn.  with  vesa,  an  older  form  of  vera,  to  be,  and  originally  signi- 
fied Being,  as  a  distinctive  appellation  of  the  Gods. 

*  Mi6gar5r,  the  Middle-Ward ;  corresponds  with  Goth,  midjun- 
gards;  Old  Gertn.  mittilgart;  A.-S.  middangeard,  middeweard. 
The  N'orse  mi5r  is  cogn.  with  the  Goth,  midums,  midia ;  Gertn. 
mitte,  mittel ;  A.-S.  midd,  midlen;  ^w^r^.  middle,  middling,  mean ; 
Sansk.  madhyam,  medhi ;  Zend  meias;  Pers.  mijan ;.  6^r.  i^tpos, 
&c.  Gar,  gard,  gar6r,  and  cognate  words  in  the  Indo-European 
languages,  signified  an  inclosure,  fence  ;  hence  the  English  Avords: 
girth,  to  gird,  garden,  guard,  ward,  yard,  court,  &c. 

f  This  Storm-eagle's  name  Ilra^svelgr,  signifies:  the  Swallower 
of  the  Dead;  from  hroe;  A.-S.  hrscovr ;  a  corpse;  and  svelgja  ; 
Da7i.  svtelge  ;  A.-S.  swelgan ;  to  swallow,  gorge, 


114  .    RELIGION   OF  THE   NOETHMEN. 

snow  and  ice,  in  all  the  powers  of  Natm-e  wliich  are 
unfriendly  to  fruitfulness  and  life. 

The  living  world  was  also  the  work  of  the  ^sir. 
The  Earth,  lying  as  a  ronnd  disc  in  the  middle 
point,  was  under  their  special  protection.  They 
sometimes  descend  thither  from  their  celestial 
abodes,  and  then  the  rainbow — Bifrost,*  the  Tremu- 
lous Way — forms  their  bridge. 

The  rej)resentation  of  IS^ight  as  the  mother  of  Day 
corresponds  with  the  rest  of  the  theory  of  the  origin 
of  the  world.  Darkness  is  the  primeval  state  in 
which  'f  mir  and  his  progeny  moved. "  Xight  be- 
longed therefore  to  the  Jotuns.  Day  first  comes  forth 
with  the  light  ^sir,  as  a  son  of  the  Jotun-born 
I^ight  and  the  ^sir-son  Delliug,  the  Daion.\ 

The  bright  heavenly  bodies  were  sparks  of  Mus- 
pell,  set  by  the  ^sir  in  the  vault  of  heaven  to  mea- 
sure time.  These  also  are  hated  by  the  chaotic 
powers.  The  Sun  and  Moon  never  have  rest  in 
their  course  by  reason  of  the  pursuing  Jotun-wolves, 
who  try  to  swallow  them. 

Within  the  Earth  there  were  powers  moving 
which  were  fragments  of  the  chaotic  life — DwarvesJ 
swarmed  forth  as  maggots  in  "f  mir's  flesh. 

The  ^sir  improved  them — gave  them  the  form 
and  understanding  of  men — but  bound  them  to  the 
caverns  of  the  dark  Earth,  where  they  are  busied 

*  Formed  from  bifa  {Dan.  breve),  to  tremble ;  and  rust,  anciently 
a  rest,  a  measure  of  distance  on  a  road,  and  then,  a  road  itself. 

•)■  Dellingr,  for  doglingr,  diminutive  of  dagr,  day. 

:}:  Dvergr, /)Z.  dvergar;  A,-S.  dvoorg;  Old  Germ,  tuerc ;  Ooth. 
dvairgs  {Deiit.  MythoL), 


TnEORT   OF   CREATION.  115 

with  metals  and  work  them.  They  were  imagined 
to  be  dark  as  their  home,  and  were  therefore  called 
^v2iVt{i\i'^iV—I)arh  Elves— sa\di  their  dwellings  in  the 
earth,  Svartalfaheimr. 

The  Eddas  make  no  mention  of  the  creation  of 
animals,  w^hich,  how^ever,  the  Asa  doctrine  con- 
nected immediately  with  that  of  plants.  Man  is 
the  last  and  most  perfect  work  of  the  creative 
power.  In  the  creation  of  man,  as  well  as  of  the 
world,  the  Divine  power  appears  in  a  threefold 
form.  The  three  ^sir,  Odin,.  Hcenir,  and  L65urr, 
create  the  first  human  pair  out  of  two  Ash  trees, 
whence  the  names  Ask  and  Embla,*  and  each  one 
imparts  to  them  a  gift  corresponding  to  his  own 
natm-e.  Odin  gives  them  spirit  (ond),  the  spiritual 
life ;  he  is  himself  the  Spirit  of  the  World,  of  whigh 
man's  is  a  reflection.  Hsenir,  Lights  gives  imder- 
standing  (65r),  the  light  of  the  soul.  L65urr,  Fire^^ 
gives  them  the  warm  blood  and  the  blushing  color, 
together  with  the  burning  keenness  of  the  senses. 
The  ^sir  gave  man,  their  favorite  creation,  a  dwell- 
ing place  in  Mid-Earth  (in  Mi5gar6),  w^hich  was 

*Askr;  Dan.  Ask;  Germ.  Esclie;  A.-8.  iEse;  an  ash  tree 
Einbla  may  have  denoted  another  species  of  Ash,  which  the  pea- 
sants still  regard  as  a  female  tree.  Grimm  says  embla,  emla,  sig- 
nifies a  busy  woman,  from  amr,  ambr,  ami,  ambl,  assiduous  labor. 
The  words  possibly  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  Meshia 
and  Meshiane,  the  ancient  Persian  names  for  the  first  man  and 
woman,  who  were  also  formed  from  trees. 

f  L65urr  is  cogn.  with  the  Germ,  lodern,  and  denotes  the  blazing 
fire.  This  is  without  doubt  the  sjvme  being  who  is  elsewhere 
called  Loki  or  Loptr. 


116  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

secui'ed  against   the  Jotuns.     Hence  it  was  also 
called  Mannheim,  man's  home  or  world. 

Ilerewith  is  the  Creation  ended.  The  livinir 
world  stands  perfect,  protected  by  the  bland  ^sir, 
with  whom  it  came  into  life ;  threatened  and  at- 
tacked by  the  cold,  dark  Jutmis,  who  endeavor  to 
regain  their  ancient  dominion.  Tlie  conflict  be- 
tween Good  and  Evil  has  grown  up  with  the  World- 
life  itself,  and  ends  only  in  its  destruction. 


OF   YGGDRASILL.  117 


CHArXER    IX. 


OF    YGGDKASILL. 


All  living  Nature  is  represented  in  the  figure  of 
the  Ash  YggdrasilL  The  name  is  uncertain,  but 
seems  to  be  best  explained  by  the  ^ term  Yggs,  as 
Odin's  horse,  chariot,  or  seat.*  The  living  world 
was  regarded  as  moved  and  guided  by  the  Divinity, 
which  had  its  seat  therein,  as  the  Spirit  in  the  body. 
The  name  in  this  sense  fully  coincides  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Old-jS'orse  poetry:  and  the  myth  of 
Yggdrasill  appears  to  be  throughout  a  poetic  alle- 
gory. 

The  World-tree  grows  up  from  three  roots-.  The 
one  shoots  from  Ilvergelmir,  the  primeval  source  of 
matter  in  the  Abyss ;  the  second  from  Jotunheim, 
from  the  depths  of  the  raw  material  forces  of  the 
world;  the  third  from  the  celestial  abodes  of  the 
^sir,  from  the  source  of  the  spiritual  World-life. 
The  figure  agrees  with  the  theory  of  creation.  In 
the  top  of  the  tree  sits  an  eagle,  doubtless  the  sym- 

*  Yggr,  one  of  Odiu's  names,  signifies :  the  Terrible,  Fear- 
inspiring,  or  also  the  Meditative;  drasill  or  drosull,  from  draga,  to 
draw,  to  bear. 

F.  Magnusen  also  has  y,  cogn.  with  lir,  moisture,  rain ;  whence 
yg,  ygg,  was  formed,  hence  it  would  signify  the  bearer  of  rain,  or 
the  bearer  of  Odin. 


118  RELIGION  OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

bol  of  Spirit  or  Life  ;  at  its  root  in  Ilvergelmir  lies 
XiShogg,  tlie  Dragon  of  Darkness  and  Deatli ;  but 
the  squirrel  Eatatosk "-  runs  np  and  down  the  trunk 
bearing  malignant  words  between  the  Eagle  and 
the  Dragon ;  contending  powers  are  active  in  Ka- 
turc,  and  deceitful  wickedness  creeps  in  with  its 
slanderous  tongue  through  human  life  and  disturbs 
its  peace.  "The  Ash  Yggdrasill,"  savs  an  ancient 
poem,  "endures  more  hardships  than  any  one 
knows;  the  harts  bite  off  its  branches,  its  trunk 
decays,  and  KiShogg  gnaws  at  its  root."  The  liv- 
ing creation  consumes  Nature's  nourishing  power ; 
its  productions  dry  up  and  die  when  their  time  has 
come ;  and  what  is  worst  of  all,  the  element  of  evil 
gnaws  continually  at  its  deepest  root. '  But  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  is  sprinkled  over  with  the  sacred, 
purifying  waters  of  the  celestial  fountain,  and  Ygg- 
drasill, with  all  its  sufferings,  stands  forever  green  ; 
the  life  of  Xature  is  sustained  and  renewed  by  the 
providence  of  the  Celestial  Powers.  Here  again 
the  main  idea  is  the  grand  struggle'  which  goes 
through  the  World-life,  the  struggle  between  Spirit 
and  Matter,  between  Good  and  Evil,  between  Life 
and  Death. 

Beneath  that  root  of  the  World-tree,  which  shoots 
up  from  the  Jotun's  home,  there  is  a  well,  called, 
after  its  watcher,  Mimir's  A\^ell,  in  Avhich  Wisdom, 
or  rather  Ivnowledge,  lies  concealed.     The   name 

*  Trobably  from  rata,  to  find  the  way,  to  come,  to  go ;  and 
taska  {Germ.  Taschc),  a  pocket  or  pouch.  The  Famning  Touch 
jnay  express  the  <;apacity  of  a  talebearer  or  mischief-maker. 


YGODEASILL.  119 

Mimir  signifies  The  Knowing.^  The  Jotuns,  being 
older  than  the  J^sir,  looked  deeper  than  they  into 
the  darkness  of  the  Past.  They  had  seen  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ^Esir  and  of  the 'World;  they  foresaw 
in  like  manner  their  downfall  Concerning  both 
these  events  the  M&iv  had  to  go  to  them  for  knowl- 
edge— an  idea  which  is  expressed  in  many  places 
in  the  old  mythic  lays,  bnt  nowhere  more  clearly 
than  in  the  Yoluspii,  where  a  Yala  or  prophetess, 
fostered  among  the  Jotuns,  is  represented  as  rising 
up  from  the  deep,  and  unveiling  the^  Past  and  the 
Future  to  gods  and  men.  It  is  the  Wisdom  of  that 
deep,  therefore,  that  Mimir  keeps  in  his  Well. 
Odin  himself,  the  God  of  Heaven,  must  obtain  it 
from  him ;  he  goes  thither  in  the  night  season,  when 
the  sun,  the  Eye  of  Heaven,  has  gone  down  behind 
the  borders  of  the  earth,  mito  the  Jotun  World. 
Then  Odin  penetrates  the  secrets  of  the  Deep,  and 
hi^  eye  is  pledged  for  the  drink  he  receives  from 
the  Well  of  Knowledge.  But  in  the  glory  of  morn- 
ing dawn,  when  the  sun  rises  again  from  the  Jotuns' 
Av'orld,  the  Watcher  of  the  Well  of  Knowledge 
drinks  from  his  golden  horn  the  clear  mead  which 
Hows  over  Odin's  pledge.  Heaven  and  this  lower 
World  impart  their  wisdom  to  each -other  mutually.f 
The  proper  contrast  to  the  fountain  Hvergelmir 

*  Evidently  the  same  word  as  the  ^.-.S^.  meoiner,  skillful,  know- 
in-r;  mimerian,  to  keep  iu  memory;  aud  cogn.  with  the  Lat.  me- 
mor.  The  special  signification  of  the  word  was  doubtless  "Skilled 
in  the  Past." 

f  From  an  indistinct  and  sensual  understanding  of  this  myth, 
Odin  was  usually  represented  as  one-eyed. 


120  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

in  the  lowest  dej)tlis  of  the  abyss,  is  the  Ur5ar- 
foiint  in  Heaven,  with  whose  sacred  waters  the 
Tree  of  the  Workl  is  sustained.  It  is  guarded  by 
three  maidens,  three  superior  beings,  whose  names 
are  Ur5ur,  Yer5andi,  and  Skuld — the  Past^  the 
Present^  and  the  Future''' — and  takes  its  name 
from  the  first  and  highest  of  them.  These  beings 
are  called  Nornir.^  They  are  the  Goddesses  of 
Time  and  Fate ;  the  former  is  distinctly  expressed 
by  their  separate  names ;  in  the  latter  character  no 
doubt  their  general  name  was  given  them.  As 
Goddesses  of  Time  they  are  sustainers  of  Yggdra- 
sill.  Time  and  earthly  life  are  considered  insepara- 
ble, therefore  the  ^N'orns  are  also  the  Directors  of 
Life  and  the  Dispensers  of  Fate.  For  mankind 
they  are  the  Goddesses  of  Birth,  and  Skuld,  the 
youngest,  as  Yalkyrja,  is  also  a  Goddess  of  Death. 
Tlieir  messengers  attend  man  through  life;  they 
are  said  to  spin  his  Thread  of  Fate  at  his  birth,  and 

*  Ur5r  and  VerCandi,  substantive  forms  of  verSa  {Germ,  wer- 
den;  A.-S.  weorSan),  to  become.  The  former  corresponds  to  the 
part,  past,  vorSinn,  or  orSihn,  completed ;  the  latter  to  the  part, 
pres.  verSandi,  becoming,  happening.  Skuld,  the  coming,  is  from 
skuld,  the  part,  past  of  skulu  {Swcd.  skola;  A.-S.  sculon);  j^res. 
skal  (Steed,  skall;  Baji.  skal ;  A.-S.  sceal;  Utiffl.  shall);  pa.<it. 
skyldi  (Swcd.  sknlle;  Dan.  skulde ;  ^1.-^.  sceolde;  Engl,  should). 
The  name  signifies  also,  duty,  obligation  {Dan.  Skyld),  and  thus 
denotes  her  character  as  Goddess  of  Death.  The  A.-S.  Wyrd, 
Avas,  like  Ur5r,  a  Fate  or  Destiny,  from  which  is  derived  the  later 
English  term  weird,  as  "The  Weird  Sisters." 

f  Some  trace  a  connection  between  the  word  Xorn  and  snera 
or  nera,  an  older  form  of  snua,  to  twist,  to  twine ;  and  thus  find 
it  to  express  the  agency  of  the  Kornir,  as  the  beings  who  spin  the 
thread  of  Fate. 


YGGDRASILL.  121 

to  mark  out  witli  it  the  limits  of  his  sphere  of  action 
in  life. 

"  They  laid  down  laws, 
They  selected  life 
For  the  children  of  Time — 
The  destinies  of  men," 

says  the  Yoluspa  of  the  three  great  Norns.  Their 
decrees  (log)  are  inviolable  Destiny  (orlog),  their 
dispensations  (shop)  inevitable  IS"ecessity  (nau5r). 

The  relation  between  these  beings  and  the  ^Esir 
is  but  obscurely  stated  in  the  Asa  Mythology.  It 
appears  to  represent  the  ]^orns  as  being  fostered 
among  the  Jo  tuns  and  independent  of  the  ^sir. 
The  judgment  seat  of  the  yEsir  is  near  the  Ur5ar 
fount;  hence  their  decrees  are  passed  under  the 
su2)ervision  of  the  Korns.  The  ^Esir  themselves 
must  bow  before  the  laws  of  the  ISTorns  ;  they  w^ere 
also  limited  by  Time, — they  were  born  and  were 
to  die.  However,  the  relation  between  Time  and 
Eternity,  Divinity  and  Fate,  was  to  the  Asa  wor- 
shipers, as  to  many  other  heathen  people,  only  a 
dark  riddle  which  they,  indeed,  dared  to  ponder 
upon,  but  could  not  solve.  It  formed  a  germ  of 
self-contradiction  in  their  Mythology  which  might 
well  call  far  deeper  thinkers  to  look  beyond  the 
perishable  J^sir,  and  betrays,  though  indistinctly, 
the  traces  of  a  purer  religion  which  the  people  had 
inherited. 

The  Myth  of  Yggdrasill,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  one 
of  the  sublimest  in  the  Asa  Mythology.  It  evinces 
clear  and  profound  thought,  which  has  seen  through 
the  inmost  essence  of  the  ^sir  faith,  and  compressed 
its  whole  doctrine  into  one  grand  image. 


122  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTIMEN. 


CHAPTER    X. 

OF   THE    MYTUIC   DIVISIONS    OF   THE   WOELD. 

Ildnir  in  tlie  Old-Xorse  signifies  home,  and  in  a 
wider  sense,  the  World  as  the  home  or  abode  of  all 
livimr  beinirs.  The  name  has  thus  a  twofold  sitr- 
nificance :  one  comprehensive,  embracing  all  things ; 
and  one  more  limited,  namely,  the  abode  of  a 
greater  or  smaller  circle  of  beings,  as  the  Gods, 
Mankind,  the  Jutuns,  &c.  In  its  broader  sense  the 
name  was  probably  not  used  in  heathendom,  but 
frecjuently  in  the  more  limited  one.  The  concep- 
tion of  a  Uni^'erse  was  lost  among  the  Asa  worship- 
ers in  the  representation  of  many  isolated  worlds, 
each  one  of  which  was  considered  to  be  the  special 
abode  of  a  distinct  class  of  beings. 

From  many  passages  in  the  old  Eddaic  poems,  it 
is  clear  that  the  Asa  Mythology  admitted  of  nine 
such  worlds,  but  how  they  were  designated  or  how 
situated  in  reference  to  each  other  is  less  certain, 
and  the  notions  of  the  interpreters  are  much  divided 
in  the  matter.  The  following  order  appears  to  be 
the  most  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  sources : 

1.  Muspellheimr,  the  highest  Fire- World,  the 
realm  of  Surtur.  In  its  highest  regions  it  appears 
that  Gimli  was  thought  to  be  situated. 

2.  Go5hcimr,  the  World  of  the  Gods,  or  Asgar5r, 
the  JSsir's  Ward,  the  proper  Heaven,  which  appa- 


MYTIIIC  DIVISIONS   OF  THE   WORLD.  123 

rently  forms  a  vault  above  the  Eartli.  In  the  midst 
of  this  world  is  I5avollr* — the  Field  of  Activity^ 
the  Assembling-place  of  the  ^sir.  Here  is  Odin's 
lofty  throne  Hli5skjalf,f  which  towers  above  the 
highest  arch  of  the  Heavens. 

3.  Yanaheimr,  the  World  of  the  Vanir ;  the  air, 
or  the  space  between  Heaven  and  Eartli  filled  only 
with  clouds. 

4.  Mannheimr,  or  Mi5gar5r,  the  WoiM  of  3fan- 
Mnd,  the  ronnd  disc  of  the  Earth,  surrounded  by 
the  great  World-Ocean.  The  name  Mi5gar5r  ap- 
pears to  have  been  often  used  as  more  comprehen- 
sive, as  including  the  arch  of  Heaven,  or  at  least  its 
lower  border,  which  was  actually  believed  to  form 
a  hedge  or  defense  against  the  Jotuns. 

5.  Alfheimr,  the  World  of  the  Light-Elves — the 
fertile  surface  of  the  Earth  and  the  next  adjoining 
region  of  the  atmosphere. 

6.  Svartalfaheimr,  the  World  of  the  DarTc-Elves 
or  Dwarves — ^the  interior  of  the  Earth-disc. 

7.  Jotunheimr,  the  World  of  the  Jotuns — the 
mountain  wastes  around  the  Earth's  disc.  This 
world  was  believed  to  slope  downward,  especially 
towards  the  north.  It  was  occasionally  placed 
within  the  World-Ocean,  but  mostly,  and  especially 

*  From  iSja,  to  work ;  15,  activity;  vollr,  a  field, 
f  Evidently  derived  from  lili5  {A.-S.  Iili5),  a  gate  or  port ;  cogn. 
Avith  Engl.  lid.  la  the  0.  Edda  (Atlakvi5a  14,),  li5skjalfar  seems 
to  mean  towers.  Grimm  thinks  the  word  may  mean  a  turret-win- 
dow, or  the  seat  at  a  portal  or  window,  and  that  skjdlf  thus  corre- 
sponds to  the  A.-S.-  scylfe;  Enr/l.  shelf,  in  the  sense  of  bejich. 
nii5skjcilf  was  therefore  supposed  to  be  a  portal  or  large  window 
in  Ileaven,  with  its  adjoining  seat  (Dait  Mijthol.  p.  124). 


124  KELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

at  first,  outside  of  it  as  a  border  inclosing  it."^  It 
was  thus  believed  to  be  separated  from  Mannlieim 
by  the  ocean,  as  it  was  from  Go6heim  by  a  stream 
called  Ifingjf  w^hich  was  never  frozen  over. 

8.  Ilelheimr,  the  World  of  the  Dead^  the  lower 
World,  the  abode  for  the  bodies  of  the  Dead  {Ilalir). 
Thither  the  way  from  the  upper  "Worlds  (Ilelvegr) 
led  down  by  the  ]S"orth  through  Jotunheim  over  the 
stream  Gjoll — the  Sounding  or  Shinirig  (Northern 
Lights?);  the  bridge  over  it,  Gjallarbru,  was  roofed 
with  shining  gold. 

9.  K'iflheimr,  the  Mist-World.  The  first  and  last 
of  these  were  primeval  w^orlds,  which  were  thought 
to  be  situated  without  the  proper  mundane  World- 
system,  to  which  the  ^sir  belonged. 

We  may  remark,  however,  that  the  representa- 
tions of  these  difterent  worlds  and  their  mutual 
relations,  were  very  obscure  and  variable,  even  in 
heathen  times.  We  could  expect  no  other  of  a 
people  but  little  enlightened,  especially  at  a  time 
when  the  knowledge  of  J^ature  was  so  very  limited. 
In  later  times  the  confusion  was  increased  when  the 
Learned  began  to  look  for  these  Worlds  upon  the 
Earth,  and  to  rack  their  brains  in  finding  out  proper 
regions  to  refer  them  to.:}: 

*  Compare  the  L.  Edda:  Gylfaginuing  51,  Avitli  the  O.  Edda  : 
llymiskviOa. 

f  The  word  if  or  ef,  ordinarily  signifies  douLt,  but  the  original 
.meaning  appears  to  have  been  fluctuation,  unrest. 

X  Magnusen's  ideas  of  these  worlds  are  set  forth  in  his  "Edda- 
liere,"  page  1*79,  ct  seq. ;  Petersen's,  in  "  Danmarks  IHstorie  "  III. 
pp.  122-124.     The  above  system  corresponds  with  the  latter. 


OF   THE    GODS.  125 


CHAPTEE    XL 

OF  THE  GODS. 

The  explanation  of  the  Gods  of  tlie  Asa  Faith 
and  of  the  purely  mythological  legends,  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  tasks  in  the  interpretation  of  its 
dogmas,  and  here  more  than  anywhere,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  guard  against  seeking  a  well-finished  alle- 
gory. It  is  true  the  gods  are  mainly  a  conception 
of  the  powers  of  ISrature  under  certain  personalities ; 
but  as  a  power  of  IS'ature  could  not  be  conceived 
of  except  in  a  personification,  the  latter,  in  its  most 
sensual  form,  often  became  the  Essential.  All  the^' 
gods  of  the  Asa  mythology  are  clothed  in  human 
form,  and  represented  as  thinking,  acting,  and  even 
suffering,  as  men ;  but  they  are  idealized  in  both 
physical  and  mental  power,  and  thought  to  be  less 
limited  by  Time  and  Space  than  earthly  men ; — and 
under  this  human  form,  and  in  a  measure,  human 
activity,  the  agency  of  Nature  was  very  often 
wholly  forgotten  by  the  Skalds  in  their  Mythologi- 
cal legends.  They  adhered,  it  is  true,  to  the  im- 
portant distinctive  attributes  in  the  personality  of 
each  Divinity,  but  they  introduced  many  extrava- 
gances of  the  imagination  into  their  stories,  merely 
to  make  them  the  more  attractive.     But  this  was, 


126  EELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

indeedj  more  frequently  tlie  case  with  tlie  more  dif- 
fuse legends,  which  we  cannot  dwell  upon  in  this 
brief  exjiosition  of  the  Asa  Mythology. 

There  are  different  grades  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Asa-Gods,  as  we  find  by  looking  over  the  series  at- 
tentively, 4;hat  all  are  not  in  the  same  degree  essen- 
tial to  build  up  the  religious  system  as  a  whole,  nor 
to  complete  its  internal  connection.  Some  form,  as 
it  were,  indispensable  main-springs  to  all  the  affairs 
of  the  World,  wdiile  others  only  step  forth  at  some 
one  point  thereof,  and  then  more  as  an  auxiliary 
power  which  has  been  brought  out  and  personified 
by  investigatiofl,  for  the  sake  of  completing  a  train 
of  ideas,  than  as  an  independent  power  which  of 
itself  created  its  own  personality.  To  the  former 
class  belong  Odin,  Friga,  Thor,  Xjor5,  Frey,  Freyja, 
Baldur,  Loki,  and  perhaps  also  Heimdall  and 
JEgir ;  to  the  latter,  Tyr,  Ho5m*,  Yali,  Yi5arr,  and 
all  the  remaining  host  of  celestial  beings,  many  of 
whom  it  i$  evident  came  into  existence  only  to  illus- 
trate certain  attributes  of  the  more  prominent  gods, 
or  their  influence  in  certain  directions,  or  else  to 
form  a  connecting  link  in  some  mythological  legend 
of  importance.  The  latter  class  of  gods,  when  the 
allegory  is  not  complete,  often  presents  the  greatest 
difficulties  to  the  interpreter. 

The  Gods  have  various  terms  in  the  Asa  My- 
thology : — 1.  Go6  {sing.  Go5),  the  Gods — a  name  of 
uncertain  origin.  2.  ^^sir  {sing.  As  ;  fcm.  Asynia), 
beings  of  a  peculiar  character  and  significance ;  the 
term  is  often  limited  to  the  highest  class  of  celestial 
beings.     3.  Tivar  {sing.  Tivor,  Tivr,  Tf r),  Glorious 


OF   THE   GODS.  127 

Beings  (tir  signifying  glory,  lionor) ;  another  form 
of  the  same  name,  more  rarely  occm-ring,  is  Diar, 
from  which  is  derived  Disir  (sing.  Dis),*  Goddesses. 
4.  Year  {sing.  Yeorr),  Holy  Beings ;  from  ve,t  holi- 
ness. 5.  Regin,  Ruling  Powers^  Deliberating  Dei- 
ties. 6.  Bond  {jplur.  of  band,  a  band),  the  United^ 
the  Co-working.  7.  Hopt  {plur.  of  hapt,  binding, 
restraining),  the  Moderators.  Of  these  the  three 
first-mentioned  terms  are  of  most  general  occur- 
rence. All  these  names  for  the  gods  generally  de- 
note, so  far  as  their  derivation  is  known,  the  attri- 
butes which  were  ascribed  to  them.  'Xh.e  last  two 
are  remarkable  because  they  express  the  idea  of  the 
intimate  co-working  of  the  gods  in  the  government 
of  the  world. 

The  significance  of  Odin  as  the  Soul  of  the  Worlds 
and  the  God  of  Heaven,  has  been  already  alluded 
to.  He  is  named  All-father— -Alfa5ir,  Alfo5r, — as 
the  being  from  whom  the  Life  of  i^ature  and  the 
Powers  revealing  themselves  through  it,  the  Gods, 
were  thought  to  come  forth.  He  is  called  the 
Father  of  Generations — Aldafa5ir — with  especial 
reference  to  mankind  as  his  creation.  Lastly,  he  is 
called  Yalfa5ir  as  the  God  of  War,  in  which  charac- 

*  Tivar  occurs  often  in  the  0.  Edda:  Vaf  J)nidnm.  40,  42  ;  Grim- 
nism.  5;  Hamarsheimt,  14,  &c. ;  often  also  the  compounds  Val- 
tivar,  Chosen  or  Glorious  Gods ;  Sigtivar,  Victorious  Gods.  Diar 
occurs  in  no  genuine  Eddaic  poem,  for  the  so-called  Hrafugaldr 
Coins  where  it  is  found,  is  doubtless  a  production  of  later  times. 

I  The  word  ve  was  used  to  express  a  particular  god,  and  the 
plur.  ve  also  denoted  sacred  places.  It  is  cogn.  with  the  Old 
Germ,  wih,  a  grove ;  Old  Saxon  wih,  a  temple ;  Goth,  veihau ; 
Germ,  weihen,  to  consecrate, 


128  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

ter  lie  was  the  Father  of  the  Slain,  even  as  the  lat- 
ter were  his  elected  {vali%  his  Chosen  Sons  {pslcasy' 
nir).  It  was  natural  for  a  nation  whose  greatest 
and  most  glorious  avocation  was  War,  to  look  upon 
the  Supreme  God  of  the  World  as  preeminently 
the  God  of  War,  and  it  is  certain  that  this  was  the 
character  especially  attributed  to  Odin,  at  least  by 
the  multitude.  Tlie  War  God  therefore  is  denoted 
by  a  greater  part  of  the  various  names  which  are 
attributed  to  him  (in  the  Grimnismal  there  are  no 
less  than  fifty-two) ;-  although  it  is  true  that  the 
doctrine  that  Odin  "never  called  himself  by  the 
same  name  during  his  wanderings  among  the  peo- 
ple," more  nearly  expresses  the  World-Spirit  as  a 
Being  who,  by  an  infinite  variety  of  modes,  reveals 
himself  in  l^ature.  The  description  of  Yalhalla,t 
as  well  as  of  the  pastimes  of  the  Einherjar — the 
Chosen  Heroes^  is  in  accordance  with  the  attributes 
of  the  War-God.  Odin's  two  Wolves — Geri,  the 
Greedy ;  Freki,  the  EaiJacious — distinguish  him  in 
the  same  capacity.  His  Kavens,  however — Huginn, 
the  ThinTcing ;  Muninn,  the  Bememhering — which 
he  sends  out  over  the  world,  remind  us  at  the  same 
time,  of  the  highest  faculties  of  the  human  soul,  as 
gifts  of  the  Great  Soul  of  the  World.     Yingolf  t— 

*  The  0.  Edda;  Griinn.,  4G-54;  the  L.  Edda;  Gylf.,  3. 

f  Valholl,  from  valr;  Old  Germ,  wal;  A.-S.  w?cl:  the  Slain  iu 
Battle,  cognate  with  velja,  to  choose,  elect;  A'al,  Ban.  Yalg; 
6Vrw.  Wahl;  choice,  election  ;  and  hoU  (6^o^/<.  hallus  ;  Old  Germ. 
halla;  ^1.-^.  heal,  htel ;  Engl,  hall);  may  mean  either  the  Hall  of 
the  Chosen,  or  the  Ilall  of  the  Slain. 

X  Vingolf,  the  Abode  of  Friends  ;•  vinr  {Dan.  Yen),  a  friend ; 
cogn.  with  unna,  to  love,  to  favor ;  A.-S.  unnan,  to  give,  bestow ; 
golf  {Dan.  Gulv),  a  floor,  also  a  hall. 


0^   THE    GOBS. 


129 


the  Friendly  Hall— the  Assembling-place  of  tlie 
Goddesses,  stands  beside  Yallialla  as  the  abode  of 
Odin's  Chosen  Sons. 

Odin's  marriage  relations,  so  far  as  "^^'e  know  of 
them,  have  reference  to  the  reciprocal  relations  of 
Heaven  and  Earth.  Jur5,  the  Earthy-  is  usually 
called  Odin's  wife,  but  sometimes  also  his  daughter. 
The  Earth  is  often  mentioned  as  a  divine  Being,  as 
Fjorgyn,  the  Life-giving ^\  or  as  H165yn,  the  Warm- 
ing ;  and  as  the  Fruit-bearing  it  is  specially  personi- 
fied in  Friga.:}:  Iler  abode,  Fensalir,  the  MarsJnj 
IIalls,%  denotes  the  deep,  moist  earth.  In  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  iEsir  generally  as  the  children  of 
Odin  by  the  Earth  or  Friga,  the  idea  is  evidently 
expressed  that  the  Powers  operating  in  the  natural 
World,  came  into  being  through  the  influence  of 
Heaven  upon  the  Earth,  of  Spirit  over  Matter. 

Tlior  is  the  God  of  Thunder.  The  name  express- 
es this  attribute,  as  J)6r  is  a  contraction  of  J)6nr 
or  {)6nar,|i  and  thus  signifies  Thunder,  or  the  Thun- 

«  Jor5;  Mceso-Goth.  air>a ;  Old  Germ,  erda;  A.-S.  eorCe;  Engl 
the  Earth. 

f  From  fjor,  life. 

X  Grimm  supposes  this  word  to  be  derived  from  fria ;  Goth. 
frijon;  Old  High  Germ,  frion ;  to  love;  cognate  with  the  Old 
Saxon  fri ;  A.  S.  freo ;  woman.  lie  traces  the  grammatical  afSni- 
ties  of  the  words  Friga,  Freyja,  Freyr,  through  all  the  Old-Ger- 
manic languages,  and  shows  that  the  original  signification  is  that 
of  joyful,  glad,  imparting  gladness,  beauteous,  lovely  {Devt. 
Mythol.,  p.  17,  etc.). 

§  From  fen;  A.-S.  fen;  Engl,  fen;  which  in  the  Norse  may 
also  signify  the  watery  deep ;  and  salr ;  Old  Germ,  sal ;  Old  Sax. 
seli;  A.-S.  sele;  Dan.  Sal;  Germ.Saal;  a  Saloon,  Hall,  Mansion. 

II  Corresponding  Germanic  names;  ^.-/S'.  f)ur,  f)imor,  f)under; 
Old  S.  j[)unar  ;  Goth.  f>unr3. 


130  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

dering.  That  he  should,  from  this  attribute,  be  re- 
garded as  the  strongest  of  the  Gods,  was  naturah 
His  abode  was  therefore  called  the  Home  or  Realm 
of  Strength  (J)rii5heimr,  J)ru5vangr,  from  |)rii5r, 
an  older  form  of  {)r6ttr,  strength,  endurance) ;  his 
hall,  however,  from  the  lightnings  which  rend  the 
dark  clouds,  was  called  the  Purifier  of  Storms 
(Bilskirnu',  from  hilr,,  storm,  and  slcira,  to  purify, 
make  clear).  By  his  driving  through  the  clouds 
with  bleating  goats  attached  to  his  car,  is  ex2)ressed 
the  varied  sounds  of  thunder.  His  surnames  and 
liis  whole  fire-like  being  denote  the  attributes  of  the 
thunder  storm,  its  terrifying,  but  beneficial  in- 
fluences in  nature.  He  is  represented  as  the 
"Watcher  in  Mi5gar5  against  the  Jutuns,  whose 
sworn  enemy  he  is.  When  Thor  is  absent  in  the 
East  fighting  with  the  Trolls,  Mi5gar5  is  sorely 
beset  by  the  Jotuns ;  but  when  he  comes  home  and 
swings  his  hnge  hammer  Mjolnir,'^  they  all  take 
flight  in  terror.  Thunder  belongs  to  Summer, 
which  is  the  enemy  of  Winter,  and  puts  the  cold  to 
flight.  Tlior's  combat  witli  the  Jotuns  was  a  favor- 
ite theme  of  the  Skalds  of  Antirpity,  and  many  of 
the  mythological  legends  of  those  times  had  their 
real  sources  in  certain  local  circumstances  which  it 
is  difticult  to  trace  out.  Tlior's  personality  is  al- 
ways well  maintained  in  these  legends;  he  steps 
forth  hot-tempered  and  violent,  but  also  frank  and 
good-natured  in  the  extreme.     His  attendants — the 

*  Mjolnir,  probably  from  molva,  to  break  in  pieces ;  melja,  to 
crush,  to  pound,  or  mala,  to  grind;  all  cogn.  with  the  Germ,  mahlen, 
to  grind,  and  Miihlo,  n  mill ;  and  prob.  with  Lnf.  malleus,  a  mall«^t. 


OF    THE    GODS.  131 

liglit-footecl  boy  Tlijalfi  (the  Diligent),  and  tlie  girl 
Koskva  (tlie  Quick)*,  are  expressive  of  the  speed 
with  which  the  thunder-storm  flies  over.  His  wife 
Sif  witfl  golden  hair,  denotes  the  autnmnal  Earth, 
with  its  fields  of  yellow  ripening  corn  and  fading 
grass.  In  Norway,  even  to  this  day,  the  corn  is 
thought  to  be  ripened  by  the  autumnal  sheet-light- 
nings, which  are  without  thunder,  and  hence  they 
are  called  Kornmo.f 

The  Yanir,  in  the  Asa  Mythology,  form  a  pecu- 
liar class  of  beings,  originally  the  enemies  of  the 
^sir,  but  afterward  connected  with  them  on  terms 
of  the  closest  intimacy.  If  we  turn  our  attention 
to  the  gods  Njor5  and  Frey,  w^ho  are  reckoned  with 
that  race,  it  will  be  evident  tliat  they  properly  be- 
long to  the  Air,  and  denote  its  beneficial  infiuence 
over  the  life  of  Nature.  The  name  Yanir,  the 
Vacant,  Incorjporeal  (from  vanr,  empty,  void),  de- 
notes their  aerial  nature.  In  what  manner  the  con- 
test between  the  ^sir  and  the  Yanir,  which  was 
laid  aside  in  the  World's  first  existence,  and  con- 
cluded by  a  treaty  in  which  tlie  yEsir  gave  Ilfenir 
as  a  hostage  against  Njor5,  should  be  most  correctly 
interpreted,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  decide.  Some  be- 
lieve the  myth  to  express  the  idea  that  the  light  of 
W  eaven  had  to  break  through  thick  clouds  which 
originally  enveloped  the  Earth  in  order  to  call,  forth 
Fruitfulness,  which  thus  was  thought  to  be  an  effect 

*  f)j.'ilfi,  from  J'jiilf,  assiduous  labor;  Roskva,  from  rosier,  quiet, 
lively,  aetive;  cogn.  with  Bii:ed.  and  Dan.  rask;  Germ,  raseh; 
Engl.  rash. 

f  Or  Kornmot'',  literally,  the  Corn-ripener. 


132  RELIGION    OF   TIIE    NORTHMEN. 

of  the  united  powers  of  Heaven  and  tlie  Atmo- 
sphere.*^ Others  have  referred  this  contest  "between 
tlie  ^sir  and  the  Yanir  to  a  strife  between  two  reli- 
gious parties,  the  Fire-worshipers  and  Waftr-wor- 
shipers,  which  was  ended  by  a  blending  of  both 
religions;  the  Water-deities  or  A^anir,  being  re- 
ceived among  the  Fire-deities  or  ^sir,  and  wor- 
shiped side  by  side  with  them.f  It  might  be  easier 
perhaps  to  imagine  a  contest  between  a  wandering, 
warlike  nation  and  a  peaceful,  agricultural,  and 
sea-faring  one,  wdiich  ended  in  the  union  of  the  two. 
The  reason  why  the  Yanir  were  frequently  repre- 
sented as  wise — visir  Yanir ^  vis  regin — is  unknown. 
Njor5^:  is  the  God  of  the  Air  and  the  mild  Wind, 
and  as  such,  the  Patron  of  Sea-faring  and  Fishing. 
His  djvelling  is  by  the  sea  in  ISToatun — the  Shi;p- 
meadow.%  Ilis  wife  is  the  Jotun-daughter  Ska5i|| — 
the  Harm-lringing — the  Goddess  of  Winter-storms 

*  Magnusen;  Transl.  O.  Edda.  I,  p.  114,  etc. 

f  Geijer;  Svea-Rikes  Iliifder,  I.,  pp.  354-366. 

X  Many  derivations  of  the  Word  Njor5r  are  given.  Magmisen's 
is  from  nrera  {Germ,  nahren)  to  nourish;  our  author  tliiuks  it  cog- 
nate with  njorva,  to  bind  together,  as  Njor6  was  in  a  manner  the 
bond  of  union  between  the  J£&\v  and  the  Vanir.  According  to 
Grimm  it  may  be  from  nor5r,  north;  the  corresponding  Goth. 
form,  Nair}>us;  and  in  other  Germanic  dialects,  Kirdu,  Nird,  or 
Nerd;  and  the  name  and  divinity  identic  with  the  Ncrthus  of 
Tacitus,  which  he  deems  the  right  reading  of  Hertha.  {Devi. 
Mythol  pp.  197,  229.) 

§  From  K'6r,  a  ship,  andtiin,  a  meadow,  a  cultivated  or  inclosed 
field — formerly,  a  town,  as  Sigtiin,  the  Victor's  (Odin's)  Town,  in 
Sweden. 

II  From  skaOa  {Dan.  skade;  Germ,  eclmden),  to  injure:  cogn. 
with  A.-S.  con^ian,  Engl,  scath. 


OF   THE   GODS.  133 

and  rough  mountain  winds.  Her  favorite  abode  is 
Tlirymlieim"^' — tlie  Home  of  Storms — the  lofty, 
storm-raging,  snow-covered  mountain  regions  where 
only  the  hunter  on  his  snow-shoes  finds  nourishment. 
The  compromise  between  them,  to  dwell  nine  nights 
in  Thrymheim  and  three  nights  in  Noatun,  refers  to 
the  high  northern  latitudes  where  rough  weather 
and  wintry  storms  prevail  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year. 

ISrjor5's  children,  Frey  and  Freyja,  are  the  Deities 
of  Fruitfuhiess ;  the  former  with  regard  to  the 
Earth,  the  latter,  to  Mankind.  Their  names  in  the 
Old-Norse,  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
manic languages,  signify  Lord  or  Master,  and  Lady 
or  Mistress ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  this  be  the 
original  meaning,  or  wdiether  it  was  not  rather 
derived  from  the  great  veneration  in  which  these 
divinities  were  held  at  an  early  age  among  the  Ger- 
manic races.  There  is  every  reason  to  suppose  a 
direct  affinity  between  these  two  names  and  fror, 
peaceable,  gentle ;  fro,  peace,  repose ;  as  well  as 
friofr,  fruitful ;  friof,  frio,  seed ;  in  the  former  case 
tliey  would  denote  the  gentleness  which  w^as  attri- 
buted to  these  beings,  in  the  latter  they  would  des- 
ignate them  as  the  Bestowers  of  Fruitfulness.f 

*  firymr,  uproar;  J)rymia,  to  storm. 

f  The  Gothic  name  corresponding  to  Freyr  in  the  sense  of  Lord 
and  Master,  is  Jrduja ;  Old  High  Germ.  Fro  ;  A.-S.  Frea.  Corre- 
sponding to  Freyja  in  the  sense  of  Lady  or  Mistress  is  the  Old 
High  Germ.  Frouwa,  Frowa;  A.-8.  Freo  ;  Goth.  Fraujo;  and  mod- 
ern Ban.  Frue ;  Swed.  Fru  ;  Germ.  Fran.  Comp.  HcuL  Mythol.  pp. 
190-200,  27 6-277. 

7 


134  KELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

Frey  drives  with  Lis  golden-bristled  Boar — the 
synihol  of  the  productiveness  of  the  fields ; — or  he 
sails  in  his  serial  ship  Ski5bla5nir/''  over  the  light 
clonds.  lie  dwells  in  Alfheim,  and  rules  over  the 
Light-Elves  (Ljosalfar) — the  bland  sjDirits  which 
hover  about  the  fruitful  earth.  His  love  for  the 
Jotun  maiden  Ger5af — the  Emhracing^  Surround- 
ing— expresses  the  longing  of  Fruitfulness  to  impart 
its  blessings  to  the  wintry  Earth.:j:  To  gain  the 
object  of  his  longing  he  gives  away  his  good  sword, 
and  therefore  he  alone  is  weaponless  among  the 
warlike  JEsir, — the  culture  of  the  earth  is  an  em- 
ployment of  peace ;  it  thrives  only  where  weapons 
are  at  rest. 

Freyja's  abode  is  the  Peo^Dle's  Fields  or  Habita- 
tions (Folkvangar)  ;§  in  her  hall  there  is  room  for 
many  seats. ||     The  Goddess  of  Love  journeys  among 

*  Ski5,  a  thin  shingle,  or  a  sheath ;  cognate  -with  the  Ban. 
Skede;  Germ.  Scheide;  A.-S.  sceaO.  Bla5;  Ban.  Blad ;  Germ. 
Blatt;  cogn.  with  Engl,  blade.  The  word  denotes  the  property 
of  the  ship,  that  although  it  was  so  large  as  to  hold  all  the  yEsir 
yet  it  was  so  skillfully  made,  that  when  it  was  not  wanted  its  leaf- 
like planks  could  be  folded  up  like  a  cloth  and  the  whole  affair 
carried  in  the  pocket  (see  L.  Edda,  Gylf.  43). 

I  Ger5r  signifies  a  girth,  inclosure,  from  girSa,  to  gird,  whicli 
is  cognate  with  gar5r  (see  Chap.  8,  Mi(5gar5r),    Both  (jcrd  and  cjard 
are  common  terminations  of  female  names,  as  Ilildigard,  Thorgerd 
&c. 

X  Pet.  Danm.  Hist.  III.,  p.  ITS. 

§  Folk;  A.-S.  folc;  Sw.,  Ban.  and  Engl,  folk;-  Germ.  Volk. 
V.lngr,  'pl.  vdngar,  an  inclosure,  field;  cogn.  with  Germ.  Woh- 
nung,  a  habitation. 

II  Sessrymnir,  from  sess  {Ban.  Srede;  (?mw.  Sitze),  a  seat,  and 
rf  ma,  to  make  room — literally,  the  Seat-room}-. 


OF  THE   GODS.  135 

mankind  and  embraces  their  numerous  hosts  with 
her  divine-power.  She  drives  with  cats — a  symbol 
of  sly  fondling  and  sensual  enjoyment.  Her  hus- 
band's name,  05ur,  signifies  Sense,  Understanding, 
Init  also  wild  desire.  The  various  names  bestowed 
upon  her  w^hen  she  travels  among  the  people, 
denote  the  various  modes  by  which  Love  reveals 
itself  in  human  life.  The  other  Goddesses  named 
in  the  Asa  Mythology  as  Patronesses  of  Love  and 
Marriage — Sjofn,  Lofn,  and  Yar — were  all  regarded 
as  messengers  and  attendants  of  Freyja. 

The  ^sir  Baldur,  Ho6ur,  and  Yali  are  the  most 
intimately  connected  with  each  other,  but  their  sig- 
nificance can  be  best  understood  in  connection  with 
the  myth  of  Baldur's  Death,  under  which  they 
shall  be  mentioned. 

Tyr"^  is  the  God  of  warlike  boldness,  of  Bravery ; 
Bragi  is,  as  the  name  itself  implies,  the  God  of  Poe- 
try.f  They  are  both  Sons  of  Odin,  and  are  in  reali- 
ty only  peculiar  expressions  of  Odin's  being.  As 
the  God  of  War  he  aw^akens  wild  courage,  as  the 
Sovereign  of  the  Soul  he  is  himself  represented  as 
tlie  Liventor  of  Poetry. 

Iduna,  the  Efficacious,  perhaps  originally  signified 
N^ature's  vigorous  Summer-life ;  to  the  yEsir  she  is 
the   Goddess   of  Eternal  Youth.     Ilcr   connection 

*  Tyr  corresponds  with  A,-8.  Tir,  glory,  dominion;  the  Sanslcr. 
Djans,  (jen.  Divas;  Gr.  Zevj,  gen.  Aios;  MceHO-Goth.  Tins,  gen, 
Tivis;  Norse  Tyr,  gen.  Tys;  are  cognate  words  signifying  God. 
{Dent.  Mythol,  pp.  175,  187.) 

f  Bragi  corresponds  with  ^..-/S.Brego,  a  ruler,  prince  ;  and  per- 
haps with  A.-S.  brcegen,  brain.  In  the  Norse,  bragr  signifies 
poetry. 


136  RELIGION    OF   THE   NOETHMEN. 

with  Bragi  refers  to  the  poet's  mission  of  immortal- 
izing great  deeds. 

Saga  is,  as  the  name  directly  implies,  the  God- 
dess of  History.  Iler  dwelling  is  Sokkvabekk — 
(the  sinking,  the  deep  brook) — the  stream  of  Time 
and  of  Events,  where  Odin  (Spirit)  visits  her  and  is 
gladdened  by  her  instrnctive  disconrse. 

Heimdall  is  one  of  the  Gods  whose  signification  is 
very  obscnrc.  The  name  may  perhaps  be  traced 
from  heimr  and  dallr  (in  the  sense  of  d?ell,  agree- 
able, pleasing),  and  may  denote  the  pleasures  of  the 
world.  The  name  of  his  abode  Iliminbjorg  signi- 
fies Heaven's  Mount  or  Heaven's  Salvation.  He 
was  probably  regarded  as  the  Deity  of  the  Ilain- 
bow,  although  the  many  special  attributes  and 
names  bestowed  upon  him  can  hardly  be  explained 
by  this  character  alone. 

ISTot  less  obscure  in  YiSar's  character.  The  name 
seems  most  easily  explained  with  "  The  Winner  of 
Victory"  (being  used  in  the  sense  of  Yinnar,  from 
vinna  to  overcome),  and  in  this  case  refers  to  his 
victory  in  the  last  battle  of  the  Gods.  He  may 
thus  denote  the  regenerative  power  which  was 
thought  to  lie  in  the  Earth.  Therefore  was  he  a  son 
of  Odin  and  a  Jotim  woman — of  Spirit  and  Mat- 
ter ;  therefore  was  his  dwelling-place  Landvi5i — the 
wide  earth ;  therefore  was  he  the  silent,  inefiicient 
god  during  the  existing  state  of  the  world.  In  its 
downfall  he  first  steps  forth  in  his  strength,  con- 
quering the  powers  of  Darkness  and  Desolation,  and 
he  afterward  dwells  in  the  rejuvenated  world. 

In  the  high  northern  latitudes  Winter,  although 


OF   TUE   GODS.  137 

,  Nature  lies  in  a  state  of  torpor,  is  a  very  important 
season  for  tlie  activity  of  men^  hence  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  the  heathen  Northmen  imagined  one  of 
the  yEsir  to  preside  over  that  season,  and  to  favor 
human  operations  by  furnishing  good  roads  and 
facilities  for  traveling,  and  inventing  means  for 
passing  easily  over  the  ice  and  snow.  This  Divin- 
ity is  Ulhir,  whose  name  signifies' the  Wool-like  or 
White.  His  abode  is  I'dalir — the  Dale  of  cool 
Dampness. 

Forseti  signifies,  according  to  the  name,  the  Fore- 
seated^  the  Presider.  He  presides  over  Justice,  and 
is  the  God  of  Righteousness.  His  dwelling  is  Glit- 
nir,  the  Shining.^  He  is  the  son  of  Baldur — of 
spotless  Innocence.  When  Innocence  disappeared 
from  the  earth,  Eighteousness  was  left  behind  to  fill 
its  place. 

The  name  Yalkyrja  signifies  the  Chooser  of  the 
Slain.f  The  Yalkyrjur  served  Odin,  and  were  the 
Goddesses  of  Battle  and  of  Death.  They  are  beings 
who  realize  to  the  senses  Odin's  attributes  as  the 
God  of  War. 

The  being  who  is  regarded  as  the  God  of  the  Sea 
is  designated  by  three  names :  ^Egir — the  Terrible 
(£egia,  to  frighten) ;  Iller — the  Shelterer  (hie,  A.-S. 

*  Glita,  to  shine;  or  glitra,  cogn.  with  A.-S.  glitenan,  glitnian; 
Engl,  glitter,  glisten.  Forseti  was  worshiped  by  the  Frisians,  and 
called  Fosite,     {Deut.  Myth,  pp.  210-212.) 

f  Valr,  Old.  Germ,  wal ;  A.-S.  WctI  ;  the  Slain  in  battle  ;  whence 
the  Dan.  Valplads;  Germ.  Wahlplatz;  a  field  of  battle;  kyrja 
from  kjora,  kjdsa ;  A.-S.  cnron,  ceosan;  Old.  Germ,  kiiren,  to 
choose.  In  the  A.-S.  such  Latin  words  as  Alecto,  Bellona,  were 
rendered  by  Wrelcyrige  and  Wcclcyrie. 


138  RELIGION   OF   THE   NOETHMEN. 

lileo,  Dan.  Lee,  Engl,  lee) ;  and  Gymir — the  Con- 
cealing (geyma,  A.-S.  gyman,i>an.  gjemme,  to  con- 
ceal, to  keep).  Tliey  express  tlie  sea  in  its  uproar, 
in  its  mildness,  and  •  as  the  covering  of  the  Deep. 
The  name  of  his  wife,  Ean — Robbery,  or  the  Eob- 
bing  (rjBna,  to  plunder),  denotes  the  sea  as  craving 
its  sacrifice  of  human  life  and  of  treasures.  ^Eoir 
and  his  family,  it  is  certain,  did  not  belong  among 
the  yEsir,  yet  they  were  regarded,  like  them,  as 
mighty  beings,  whose  friendship  was  sought  by  the 
iEsir  themselves.  The  ancient  les-end  that  JEo-ir, 
when  visited  by  the  yEsir,  illuminated  his  hall  with 
shining  gold  (lysigull),  refers  no  doubt  to  the  phos- 
phorescent light  of  the  sea  (marelldr,  sea  fire,  Dan. 
Morild). 

The  Northmen  imagined  twelve  of  the  yEsir  to  be 
superior,  and,  as  it  were,  to  form  a  Council  of  Gods ; 
but  which  they  were  is  nowhere  said  with  certainty. 
In  the  ancient  poem  of  Grimnismal  ^''  there  are 
twelve  celestial  abodes  enumerated  l)y  way  of  pre- 
eminence, and  in  the  Later  Edda,t  twelve  names  by 
which  Odin  was  especially  designated.  This  pref- 
erence shown  in  the  Mythology  for  the  number 
twelve,  has  appeared  to  several  interpreters  to  refer 
to  the  divisions  of  the  year  among  the  heathen 
Northmen,  and  their  reckoning  of  the  sun's  course. 
According  to  their  theory,  each  of  the  twelve  yEsir 
was  the  diji-ector  of  his  respective  month ;  the  twelve 
names  of  Odin  were  names  of  the  months;  and 
the  twelve  celestial  abodes  denoted  the  twelve  signs 

*  The  0.  EJda :  Grimn.  6-17. 
f  Tlic  L.  Edda :  Gylf.  3. 


OE   THE    GODS. 


139 


of  tlie  zodiac,  which  the  sun  passes  through  annu- 
ally.* Magnuscn  has  gone  still  farther,  and  re- 
ferred the  hfty-two  names  of  Odin  which  are  enu- 
merated in  the  Grimnismal,  to  the  fifty-two  weeks 
of  the  year,  the  seventy-three  names  of  Dwarves 
which  occur  in  the  Yolusj^a,  to  another  division  of 
the  year  into  seventy-three  Fifths,  or  sections  of  five 
days  each,  and  finally,  the  thirteen  names  of  the 
Yalkyrjur  in  the  Grimnismal,  to  the  thirteen  lunar 
changes  of  the  solar  year.  Gn  this  he  has  built  a 
conijDlete  heathen  Calendar,  based  upon  the  solar 
year.f  It  is  tolerably  certain  that  the  heathen 
JS^orthmen  divided  the  year  into  twelve  months,  and 
it  is  most  likely  that  the  number  twelve  in  the  ^sir 


*  [The  following  is  the  order  of  the  twelve  celestial  abodes  in 
the  Grimnismal,  arranged  as  "Solar  Houses"  corresponding  to  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  by  F.  Magnusen,  in  his  Eddahere,  Vol.  III.,  p. 
244: 

1.  f  dalir,  the   abode   of  Ullr 
Freyr 
Vali 
Saga 

Ui5imi 

Ska6i 

Baldr 

Ileinidallr 

Freyja 

Forseti 

NjorSr 

Vi5arr 
■j-  See  in  Magnusen's  Transl.  of  the  O.  Edda,  Vol.  T,  the  Inter- 
pretation of  Grimnismal;  and  his  "Specimen  Calendarii  Gentilis'' 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  Arna-Magnjcan  edition  of  the   O.  Edda, 
Vol.  III. 


2. 

Alfheimr, 

3. 

Valaskjdlf, 

4. 

Sokkvabekkr, 

5. 

Gla5sheirar,  | 

or  ValhoU,  f 

6. 

|)rymheimr, 

7. 

BreiSablik, 

8. 

Himinbjorg, 

9. 

Folkvangar, 

10. 

Glitnir, 

11. 

JSoatun, 

12. 

Landvi5i, 

Sagittarius 

Nov. 

Capricornus 

Dec. 

Aquarius 

Jan, 

Pisces 

Feb. 

Aries 

Mar. 

Taurus 

April. 

Gemini 

May. 

Cancer 

June. 

Leo 

July. 

Virgo 

Aug. 

Libra 

Sept. 

Scorpio 

Oct.  Tr.] 

IttO  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

Mythology  is  in  connection  with  this  division ;  tliat 
they  also  made  use  of  a  division  of  time  consisting 
of  five  days  {fimt)  is  very  probable  ;  but  that  they 
should  have  understood  how  to  compute  the  solar 
year  correctly,  and  especially  that  they  should  have 
had  distinct  ideas  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  as  the 
heathen  Calendar  set  up  by  Magnusen  supposes,  is 
very  doubtful. 


THE   DOWNFALL   OF  THE  WOKLD.  141 


CHAPTER   XII. 

OF   THE   DOWNFALL   OF   THE   WORLD. 

Immedlitely  following  tlie  Creation  of  tlio  World 
tlie  Asa  doctrine  establishes  a  time  of  peace  among 
Gods  and  Men.  But  it  vanislied  from  Heaven 
wlien  the  J^sir  allowed  the  Jotnns  to  creep  into 
their  midst,  and  even  formed  connections  with  them 
in  order  to  satisfy  their  desires,  or  to_  employ  their 
powers  to  their  own  advantage  ;  thus  they  impaired 
their  Godlike  power,  and  gave  their  enemies  the 
courage  to  begin  the  great  battle  which  was  to  en- 
dure till  the  destruction  of  the  "World.  From  the 
Earth,  also,  the  time  of  guiltless  peace  disappeared 
when  men  became  acquainted  with  the  Jotun-power 
of  gold,  and  set  their  minds  and  their  dependence 
upon  it  Then  tbe  Gods  were  offended,  Odin  cast 
his  spear  over  the  people,  and  strife  began  upon  the 
Earth.  Such  appears  to  be  the  meaning  of  the 
somewhat  obscure  expressions  of  the  Yoluspa  on 
tliis  subject.  Thus  excessive  cupidity  and  lust  were 
reo-arded  as  the  cause  of  the  de£>:eneration  of  the 
Godlike  powers  and  of  the  mutual  dissensions  among 
men."''^ 

The  Asa  doctrine  represents  Loki  as  the  author 

*  The  O.  Edda :   Voluspii,  25-28. 


142  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

of  Evil  among  both  Gods  and  men.  This  being  lias 
evidently  a  physical  and  a  moral  significance,  name- 
ly :  Fire^  and  Sin  or  Sinful  desire.  The  name 
Loki  (the  Enticer,  Dan.  Lokker ;  cognate  with  lokka, 
Dan.  lokke,  to  alhire,  entice)  refei-s  to  the  latter 
meaning,  though  its  affinity  to  logi,  flame,  is  unmis- 
takable. To  the  former  meaning  his  other  names 
Lodurr  and  Loptr  refer,  the  one  designating  him  in 
the  character  of  the  blazing  and  Ifeating  earthly 
fire^  the  other  in  that  of  the  unsteady  air.*  ISTothing 
was  more  natural  than  to  conceive  of  the  being  who 
ruled  over  the  sometimes  enlivening  and  sometimes 
devouring  Eire,  as  a  mingled  character,  hovering 
between  good  and  evil  powers — between  the  ^sir 
and  the  Jotuns ;  and  in  this  character  is  again  ex- 
pressed his  significance  in  a  moral  point  of  view, 
lie  steps  forth  in  the  ancient  mythologic  legends  as 
the  wheedling  seducer  whose  beautiful  and  ani- 
mated exterior  conceals  a  malignant  soul,  and  whose 
smooth  tongue  is  full  of  lies  and  slander. 

There  is,  moreover,  a  distinction  made  in  the 
Later  Edda  between  two  beings  of  this  name,  viz. : 
Loki  and  Utgar5a-Loki— the  Loki  of  the  Outer-ward 

*  The  name,  it  is  true,  comes  rnpst  directly  from  loka  or  liika, 
to  lock,  to  close,  to  conclude  {Dan.  lukke;  M.-Goth.  lukaii ;  A.-S. 
lucan),  and  it  is  remarkable  that  we  find  an  Evil  Spirit  mentioned 
iu  the  Anglo-Saxon  poems  by  the  name  of  Grendel,  which  is  the 
same  word  as  grindel,  a  bolt,  bar,  or  grating.  Logi,  flame,  is  cogTi. 
with  the  M.-Goth.  liuhan,  to  shine,  and  liuhath  ;  A.-S.  leoht; 
Gcrm.TAoht;  En(jl\\^\\t;  alsoZ>n«.  Lue  ;  6Vn«.  Lohe  ;  smothered 
llame,  L65urr  is  from  the  older  l65,  fire  {Germ,  lodern,  to  blaze). 
Loptr,  the  Ai-rial,  from  lopt;  M.-Goth.  luftus;  Germ,  and  Dan. 
Luft;  A.-S.  lyft,  the  air;  whence  the  Eiujl  loft,  lofty,  aloft. 


THE   DOWNFALL   OF  THE   WORLD.  143 

or  J  otunlieim.  Tlie  latter  is  represented  as  a  genu- 
ine Jotim,  liideoiis  in  his  whole  being.  It  would 
appear  that  in  him  was  meant  to  be  presented  phys- 
ical and  moral  Evil  in  all  its  naked  loathsomeness, 
while  in  Loki,  as  he  makes  his  appearance  among 
the  7'Esir,  it  was  intended  to  represent  the  same  in 
the  seductive  and  seemingly  beautiful  form  under 
which  it  glides  about  through  the  world  of  man- 
kind. 

With  the  Jutun-woman  Angrbo5i — (the  Anguish- 
boding),^'  Loki  begets  the  three  most  bitter  enemies 
of  the  ^sir,  Mi5gar5sorm,  Fenrisulf,  and  Hel.f 
Tiie  two  former  express  the  disturbing  powers  in 
the  Sea  and  the  interior  of  the  Earth,  which,  though 
bound  for  a  time  by  the  power  of  the  aEsir,  will  one 
day  burst  their  chains  and  work  together  for  the 
destruction  of  the  world.  Ilel  (Death)  is  the  dis- 
turbing power  in  man's  being,  which,  without  satie- 
ty, calls  his  bodily  part  to  her  abode,  a  cold,  dark 
world  of  shades,  full  of  want  and  loathsomeness. 

*  Angr;  A.-S.  Angu ;  vexjition,  grief,  anguish;  by5,  bj65a;  A. 
S.  beodan;  to  invite,  offer,  command. 

I  Ormr,  a  serpent  {A.-S,  wyrm,  wurm,  worm).  Fenrir  or  Fen- 
ris-ulfr,  from  fen,  a  morass,  gl^lf ;  iilfr,  A.-S.  wulf,  a  wolf,  lieuce, 
the  Monster  of  the  Abyss.  Hel,  Death,  the  Goddess  of  Death. 
Some  suppose  the  primary  signification  of  the  word  to  have  been 
intense  cold,  cogn.  with  the  Lat.  gelu.  Grimm  derives  it  from 
liilan,  to  conceaV  in  the  sense  of  a  subterranean  cavity  (A.-S.  hoi, 
a  cavern,  Fngl.  hole,  being  probably  cognate).  At  any  rate,  all 
the  Germanic  nations  when  converted  to  Christianity  applied  this 
name  to  the  place  where  the  souls  of  the  wicked  were  supposed  to 
be  punished;  thus,  Mccso- Gothic  halja ;  Old  Germ,  hellia,  hella  ; 
Germ,  riolle;  A.-S.  helle ;  Engl,  hell;  Norse,  helviti  (prop,  the 
punishment  of  death);  /SMJe-d  helvete ;  Daw.  Helvede;  ifec. 


144  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTIBIEN. 

Baldiir's  death  is  represented  in  tlie  Asa  Mythol- 
ogy as  an  imjiortant  event  in  the  existence  of  the 
Gods  and  the  AV^orld.  So  long  as  Baldur  was  in  the 
midst  of  the  ^sir  their  dominion  stood  unmoved, 
but  by  his  death  they  were  made  conscious  of  their 
declining  power ;  in  it  they  saw  a  type  of  their  own 
destiny.  The  whole  world  was  filled  with  grief; 
for  it  felt  that  from  that  time  forth  it  was  going 
down  toward  inevitable  dissolution. 

The  Myth  of  Baldur's  Death  has  been  usually 
exf>lained  by  the  triumph  of  Winter's  darkness  over 
the  bright  Summer-time.  Baldur  the  Good  is  thus 
the  God  of  Summer,  the  blind  Ho5ur  becomes  win- 
try Darkness,  and  Yali  (the  son  of  Odin  by  Bind — 
the  unfruitful  Winter-earth)  is  Spring,  who,  in  turn, 
slays  Winter.  Loki  (fire)  is  the  only  being  who  loses 
nothing  by  the  disappearance  of  summer;  he  is 
therefore  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  Baldur's  death, 
and  to  prevent  his  release  from  Hel. 

There  is  a  great  deal,  however,  against  this  inter- 
pretation, and  most  of  all,  is  the  circumstance  that 
Baldur  remains  with  Hel  until  the  dissolution  of  the 
World,  while  Summer  annually  returns.  It  may 
be,  indeed,  that  Baldur  had  originally  a  physical 
signification,  but  the  Myths  concerning  him,  as  well 
as  those  relating  to  Loki,  were  very  early  regarded 
from  a  moral  point  of  view,  and  it  is  thus  that  they 
are  represented  in  the  Eddas. 

The  whole  representation  of  Baldur's  existence, 
and   of  his  far-shining  abode,  Brei5ablik,'^  where 

*  From  brei(5r,  broad,  wide  ;  and  blika  (.1.-/^.  blican),  to  sliiue. 


THE   DOWNFALL   OF  THE   WORLD.  14:5 


nothing  impure  is  found,  lias  reference  to  the  Deity 
of  Innocence.  Tlie  name  Ballclr  signifies  the  Strong,^' 
and  denotes  spiritual  Power  combined  with  spotless 
Innocence.  The  blind  IIo5ur,  in  this  connection, 
denotes  physical  sti-ength,  with  its  blind  earthly 
endeavors.  The  latter,  led  on  by  Sin  (Loki),  unwit- 
tingly slays  Innocence,  and  with  Innocence  dies  the 
desire  of  good  and  the  active  participation  in  it — 
Nahna  f  dies  of  a  broken  heart  and  is  burned  on 
the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband  Baldur.  The  mur- 
der is  avenged  by  the  hastily-aroused  reflection — 
Ho5ur  is  slain  by  Yali.  But  Innocence  has  van- 
ished from  the  world  to.  return  no  more,  although 
all  Nature  mourns  its  loss.  Only  in  the  regenerated 
World  shall  it  again  prevail. 

Tlie  Msiv  succeeded  in  appeasing  their  thirst  for 
vengeance  upon  Loki,  and  even  got  him  imprisoned 
in  the  Abyss,  as  they  had  before  imprisoned  his 
progeny;  iDut  the  seeds  of  destruction  and  death 
had  already  been  sown  broadcast  in  the  world,  and 
they  grew  up  vigorously.  Thenceforth  the  iEsir 
foresaw  the  impending  dissolution  of  theVorld  and 
of  themselves,  against  which  they  might,  indeed,  con- 
tend, but  were  not  able  to  avert. 

*  Balldr,  ballr,  baJdinn,  brave,  strong,  bold;  Mccso-Goth.  hal]>s, 
bold ;  A-.S.  Bealdor,  Baldor  (the  bolder),  a  hero,  a  prince,  from 
beald,  bdld,  b6ld ;  bold,  courageous,  honorable,  are  terms  cognate 
to  the  name  of  the  God.  Grimm  believes  this  a  later  meaning,  and 
that  the  name  may  be  traced  to  the  Lithuanian  baltas,  which  sig- 
nifies both  lohite  and  good. 

I  From  nenna,  to  be  inclined  to,  to  like. 


1-iC  KELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 


OHArTEIi    XIII. 

OF  nUE  STATE  OF  BEING  AFTER  DEATH. 

TuE  Asa  doctrine  positively  asserts  the  Imiiior- 
talitj  of  the  Soul  in  connection  with  a  state  of  Retri- 
bution beyond  the  grave  ;  and  it  appears  to  have 
regarded  man  as  originally  created  to  Immortality, 
and  the  dissolution  of  the  body  in  death  to  have  its 
type  in  Baldur's  death,  and  like  it  to  be  a  Avork  of 
Loki's  malignity. 

But  although  the  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  was  firmly  established,  yet  the  ideas  concern- 
ing the  state  of  existence  after  death  were  dark  and 
unsettled.  The  relation  between  Odin  and  Ilel,  be- 
tween Godheim  and  Ilelheim,  presented  a  difficulty 
which  they  strove  to  solve  by  various  modes.  In 
the  Later  Edda  it  is  said  that  they  who  are  slain  in 
battle  go  to  Odin,  in  Yalhalla,  but  those  who  die  of 
sickness  or  old  age  go  to  Hel,  in  Ilelheim. ''^"  Ac- 
cording to  this,  in  a  strict  sense,  it  should  be  the 
kind  of  death  alone  that  decided  the  soul's  future 
state ;  only  those  who  fall  by  weapons  ascend  to 
the  glad  abodes  of  Heaven,  while  all  who  die  of 
sickness  wander   away  to   the   dark  world  of  the 

*  The  L.  Edda:  Gylfaginning  20  and  3-1, 


THE   STATE   OF   BEING   AFTER   DEATH.  147 

Abyss.  But  even  in  heathen  times  it  was  hardly 
thus  understood,  except,  indeed,  by  individuals  in 
whose  eyes  nothing  was  praiseworthy  except  war- 
tlike deeds.  The  Asa  doctrine,  taken  as  a  compre- 
hensive whole,  presents  a  different  view,,  which 
occurs  in  various  places  in  the  lays  and  legends  of 
heathen  times,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  really 
proper  to  the  Asa-faith. 

The  spirit  (ond)  or  soul  (sal)  of  man  was  a  gift  of 
Odin ;  the  body,  blood,  and  external  beauty  were  a 
gift  of  Lodurr  or  Loki ;  the  former  belonged  to  the 
Spirit  World  or  Heaven,  the  latter  to  the  Material 
World — to  the  Deep.  They  were  joined  together 
with  the  earthly  life ;  at  its  close  they  were  sepa- 
rated, and  each  returned  to  its  original  source.  The 
soul,  with  the  more  refined  bodily  form  in  which  it 
was  thought  to  be  enveloped,  went  to  the  home  of 
the  Gods,  while  the  body,  with  the  grosser  material 
life  which  was  conceived  to  be  inseparable  from  it, 
went  to  the  abodes  of  Hel  to  become  the  prey  of 
Loki's  daughter.  Man's  being  was  thus  divided 
between  Odin  and  Hel.  Odin,  who  was  also  the 
God  of  War,  was  thought  to  claim  his  share  chiefly 
from  those  who  fell  in  battle ;  Hel  from  those  who 
died  of  sickness.  Death  by  arms  came  thus  to  be 
considered  a  happy  lot  by  the  zealous  followers  of 
the  Asa-Faith,  for  it  was  a  proof  of  Odin's  favor. 
He  who  fell  by  arms  was  called  by  Odin  to  himself 
before  Hel  laid  claim  to  her  share  of  his  being ;  he 
was  Odin's  chosen  son,  who,  with  longing,  was  await- 
ed in  Yalhalla,  that  in  the  Einherjar  ranks  he  might 
sustain  the  yEsir  in  their  last  battle.     Therefore,  the 


148  KELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

Skald,  in  a  song  of  praise  to  tlio  fallen  king  Eirik 
Blood-axe,  lets  Odin  say  to  Bragi,  in  answer  to  the 
question  why  he  had  bereaved  Eirik  the  Victorious 
who  was  so  brave :  "  Our  lot  is  uncertain;  the  gray 
wolf  gazes  on  the  hosts  of  the  Gods,"  i.  e.  we  know 
not  when  the  Fenris-wolf  shall  come,  therefore  we 
may  need  the  help  of  heroes.  In  the  same  sense 
Eyvind  Skaldaspillir,  in  his  Ilakonarmal,  makes 
the  Yalkyrja  say:  "i^owdo  the  helping  hosts  of 
the  Gods  grow  stronger,  when  they  have,  by  their 
brave  bands,  brought  Iliikon  to  their  home." 

But  because  the  dead  who  were  slain  by  arms 
were  thought  to  be  called  to  the  hosts  of  the  Einher- 
jar,  it  was  not  supposed  that  Ilel  was  deprived  of 
aU  share  in  their  being  ;  nor  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  soul  of  every  one  who  died  a  natural  death 
was  shut  out  from  Heaven,  and  forced  to  follow  the 
body  down  into  the  abodes  of  Hel.  That  it  was 
virtue,  on  the  whole,  and  not  bravery  alone,  which 
was  to  be  rewarded  in  another  life,  and  that  it  was 
wickedness  and  vice  which  were  to  be  punished,  is 
distinctly  shown  in  the  ancient  heathen  poem  Yo- 
luspa,  where  it  says  that  in  Gimli  shall  the  righteous 
hosts  (d^^ggvar  drottir)  enjoy  gladness  forever,  while 
jDcrjurers,  murderers,  and  they  who  seduce  men's 
wives,  shall  wade  through  thick  venom-streams  in 
Nastrond.  Although  the  language  is  here  used  in 
reference  to  the  state  of  things  after  Ragnarokkr,  it 
may  be  assumed  that  they  had  similar  ideas  con- 
cerning the  preceding  middle  state  of  the  Dead. 

It  was  certainly  believed  that  the  soul  of  the  Vir- 
tuous, even  though  death  by  arms  had  not  released 


THE  STATE  OF  BEING  AFTER  DEATH.     149 

it  from  the  body  and  raised  it  up  to  the  ranks  of  the 
real  Einherjar,  still  found  an  abode  in  Heaven — in 
Valhalla,  in  Yingolf,  or  in  Folkvangar.  The  hea- 
then Skald,  Thjodolf  of  Ilvin,  makes  King  Yan- 
landi  go  to  Odin,  although  Ilel  tortured  him,"^  and 
the  Asa  worshiper,  Egil  Skallagrimsson,  doubts  not 
that  Odin  has  received  his  drowned  son  in  God- 
heim.f  The  souls  of  noble  women  were  also  be- 
lieved to  go  to  Heaven  after  death ;  there  they 
found  an  abode  with  Freyja,  and  the  spirits  of  maid- 
ens with  Gefjon.  When  it  is  said  that  Freyja  some- 
times shares  the  slain  with  Odin,  it  is  meant,  per- 
haps, that  the  slain,  who  in  life  had  loved  wives, 
were  united  to  them  again  with  Freyja. 

On  the  other  iiand  it  was  as  certainly  believed 
that  blasphemy  and  baseness  might  shut  out  even 
the  bravest  from  Yalhalla.  Thus  the  Saga  has  the 
zealous  Asa  worshiper,  Hakon  Jarl,  to  say  of  the 
bold  but  wicked  Hrapp  who  had  seduced  his  bene- 
factor's daughter  and  burned  a  temple :  "  The  man 
who  did  this  shall  be  banished  from  Yalhalla  and 
never  come  thither." :[: 

Tlie  strict  construction  of  the  Asa  doctrine  ap- 
pears, therefore,  to  be  this,  that  although  man  was 
divided  between  Odin  and  Ilel,  yet  each  one's  share 
of  his  being  after  death  was  greater  or  less,  accord- 
ing to  the  life  he  had  lived.  The  spirit  of  the  Yir- 
tuous  and  the  Brave  had  the  power  to  bear  up  to 
Heaven  with  it  after  death  the  better  part  of  its 

*  Snorri:  Ynlinga  Saga,  IG. 
f  Egils  Saga,  80, 
\.  Nidls  Saga,  89. 


150  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

corporeal  being,  and  Ilel  obtained  only  the  dust. 
But  he  whose  spirit  by  wickedness  and  base  sensual 
lust  w^as  drawn  away  from  Heaven,  became  in  all 
his  being  the  prey  of  Ilel.  His  soul  was  not  strong 
enough  to  mount  freely  uj)  to  the  celestial  abodes 
of  the  Gods,  but  was  drawn  down  into  the  abyss  by 
the  dust  with  which  it  had  ever  been  clogged.  Xo 
doubt  the  representation  of  Ilel  as  being  half  white 
and  half  pale-blue  had  its  real  origin  in  this  thought 
■ — that  to  the  Good,  Death  appeared  as  a  bright 
Goddess  of  Deliverance,  and  to  the  Wicked,  as  a 
dark  and  punishing  Deity. 

When  the  Drowned  w^ere  supposed  to  arrive  at 
the  halls  of  Ean,  the  Sea-goddess  filled  the  place  of 
Hel ;  Kan  claimed  the  body  as  her  prey,  the  spirit 
ascended  to  Heaven. 

The  belief  that  bondsmen  after  death  should  come 
to  Thor,  seems  to  express  the  thought  that  their 
spirits  had  not  the  power  to  mount  up  wdth  freeborn 
heroes  to  the  higher  celestial  abodes,  but  were  com- 
pelled to  linger  midway,  as  it  w^ere,  among  the  low, 
floating  clouds,  under  the  stern  dominion  of  Thor  ; 
— a  thought  painful  to  the  feelings  of  humanity,  but 
wholly  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  age  and 
the  people. 


REGENERATION   OF  THE   GODS.  151 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

OF   THE   DESTRUCTION   AND   REGENERATION    OF   THE  GODS 
AND   THE    WORLD. 

The  disappearance  of  tlie  Golden  Age,  Baldur's 
Death,  and  tlie  confinement  of  Loki,  are  represented 
as  events  long  passed  away  :  tlie  glance  toward  the 
Future  meets  at  once  with  Ragnarokk* — the  Twi- 
light of  the  Gods. 

The  great  antagonism  which  pervades  the  World- 
life  shall  be  removed  in  a  final  struggle,  in  which 
the  contending  powers  mutually  destroy  each  other. 
This  is  a  fundamental  idea  of  the  Asa  faith.  And 
that  that  great  World-struggle  was  vividly  im- 
pressed upon  the  spirit  of  the  heathen  I^orthmen,  is 
attested  by  the  strong  colors  in  which  the  Yala, 
speaking  in  the  Yoluspa,  paints  it ;  and  still  more 
is  it  attested  by  the  oft-repeated  assertion,  that  every 
hero  who  falls  on  the  field  of  battle  is  called  by  Odin 
to  the  ranks  of  the  Einherjar,  to  fight  with  them  m 
the  decisive  battle  against  the  Powers  of  Darkness. 

Ragnarokk  is  an  outbreak  of  all  the  chaotic  pow- 
ers, a  conflict  between  them  and  the  established 
order  of  Creation.  Eire,  Water,  Darkness  and 
Death  work  together  to  destroy  the  AYorld.     The 

*  Regin,  Divine  power,  the  Gods  (Chap.  11),  and  rokkr,  dark- 
ness, twiliffht. 


152  religion'  of  tiie  Northmen. 

^sir  and  their  enemies  mutually  slay  each  other. 
The  flames  of  Surtur,  the  suj^reme  Fire-God,  com- 
plete the  overthrow,  and  the  last  remnant  of  the 
consumed  Earth  sinks  into  the  ocean. 

But  as  the  two  primeval  Worlds,  Muspell  and 
Niflheim,  stand  unshaken,  neither  is  the  terrestrial 
world  eternally  destroyed  in  Eagnarokk.  "When 
the  great  convulsion  is  finished,  the  Earth  comes 
forth  out  of  the  ocean,  regenerated  and  purified 
from  Evil,  as  the  abode  of  a  new,  a  vigorous,  and  a 
happy  race  of  men.  With  the  renewed  Earth  ap- 
pears a  renovated  race  of  ^sir.  Yi5arr  and  Yali, 
who  survive  the  universal  confiagration,  join  with 
their  brothers  Baldur  and  Hu5urr,  now  set  free 
from  the  dominion  of  Death,  and  in  concord  they 
take  possession  of  the  mansions  of  their  common 
Father  Odin.  In  Thor's  stead  step  forth  his  sons 
M65i — the  Courage- Giver,  emd  Magni— the  Stre7igth- 
Give^y^  who  have  inherited  their  fiither's  Hammer, 
his  all-subduing  power.  But  a  God,  higher  than  all 
the  J^^sir,  shall  then  reveal  himself  to  rule  over  the 
World  through  all  eternity.  According  to  his  judg- 
ments shall  be  the  eternal  reward  and  the  eternal 
]ninisliment  of  the  immortal  souls  of  the  departed  ; 
the  Good  shall  be  raised  up  to  the  highest  realm  of 
light— to   Gimli;t    the   Wicked    shall  follow  the 

*  M66i,  from  moSr  {Sivcd.  mod;  Daji.  Mod;  GcrnLMwHi),  cou- 
rage ;  cogn.  with  A.-S.  mod ;  Fngl.  mood.  Magni,  from  magn, 
(^.-5.  ma^gen)  strengtli ;  magna,  to  give  Btrength ;  cognate  with 
M.-Goih.  mahts;  Germ.  Macht;  A.-S.  mdht;  ^jj^//.  might;  also 
with  Lat.  magnus. 

f  Cognate  with  gimr,  gimsteinn,  a  gem,  sparkling  stone  {Aleman- 
nic  gimme;    A.-S.  gim,  gyTiistrm ;  Lat.  gemma;  EnrfL  gem),    and 


REGENERATION   OF  THE   GODS.  153 

Dragon  of  Darkness,  who  witli  Deatli  upon  his  wings 
flees  away  to  the  abyss,  never  more  to  arise  from  it. 
But  the  doctrine  of  Eegeneration  and  the  Coming 
of  the  Supreme  God  to  the  great  Judgment,  was 
not  so  vividly  present  to  the  minds  of  the  Asa  wor- 
shipers as  was  tlie  doctrine  of  Eagharokk.  What 
might  be  beyond  the  great  World-conflagration  was 
to  them  a  dark  enigma,  which  few  were  bold  enough 
to  fathom.  Perhaps  in  that  highest  God  they  had 
a  dim  conception  of  that  Mighty  One  from  whom 
the  first  spark  of  the  World-life  proceeded,  who 
dwelt  in  the  Fire-Heaven  before  the  World  ajid  the 
^sir  came  into  being,  and  who  was  to  scatter  over 
them  the  fire  of  Devastation  in  Eagnarukk ;  but  this 
presentiment  was  joined  with  a  feeling  of  fear,  and 
hence  no  man  should  dare  to  pronounce  the  name 
of  the  Great  Judge  of  the  Universe.* 

thus  denoted  "The  Shining  Abode."  When  Grimm  assumes  that 
Gimli  is  a  dative  form  of  gimill  (which  he  takes  to  be  the  same 
as  himill,  an  older  form  of  himinn,  heaven),  because  Gimli  is  used 
only  in  the  dative  {Deut.  Myth.  p.  '783),  he  errs,  as  Gimli  occurs 
twice  in  the  nominative  form  (Gylf.  3  and  17). 

*  The  author  inclines  to  Finn  Magnusen's  opinion  that  the  High- 
est God  whose  coming  the  Voluspcl  and  Hyndlu]j65  announce,  is- 
Surtur  ;  although  most  authorities  reject  it,  {See  Grimm. :  Deuf. 
Myth.  2^p.  184-5;  Gcijer :  Svea-Hikes  Ildfder,  Vol  I.  p.  d3Q. 


154  KELTGION    OF   THE   NORTUMEN. 


CIIArTER    XY. 

GENERAL   VIEW. 

In  conclusion,  if  we  take  a  general  view  of  the 
jDrominent  features  of  the  Asa  doctrine,  we  have  tlie 
following  summary  of  the  whole : 

By  the  reciprocal  action  of  Heat  and  Cold  was 
tiie  first  unorganized  hut  powerful  World-mass  pro- 
duced, as  a  shapeless  Jotun-form.  From  this  mass, 
through  a  series  of  developments  came  forth  higher 
Powers,  which,  by  the  power  of  Spirit,  overcame  tlie 
rude  Giant-mass  and  out  of  it  created  Heaven  and 
Eartli,  the  actual  World  with  its  inhabitants,  inclu- 
ding mankind. 

^C^  The  Gods  or  ^&ir  are  these  ordaining  powers  of 
Nature,  clothed  in  personality.  Tliey  direct  the 
world  which  tliey  created  ;  but  beside  tliem  stand 
the  mighty  Goddesses  of  Fate,  the  great  Xorns,  who 
uphold  the  World-Structure,  the  all-embracing  Tree 
of  tlie  World. 

The  World-Life  is  a  struggle  between  the  good 
and  light  Gods  on  one  side,  and  the  offspring  of 
chaotic  matter,  the  Jotuns,  JSTature's  disturbing 
powers,  on  the  other.  This  struggle  reaches  also 
into  man's  being.  The  spirit  went  forth  from  the 
Gods,  the  body  belongs  to  the  Jotun-world ;  the  two 
powers  contend  with  eacli  other  for  the  dominion. 


GENERAL   VIEW. 


155 


Slionlcl  the  Spirit  gain  the  victory  through  virtue 
and  bravery,  man  ascends  to  Heaven  after  death  in 
order  to  figlit  in  concert  with  the  Gods  against  the 
Powers  of  Evil ;  but  if  the  body  triumphs,  and  links 
the  spirit  to  itself  by  weakness  and  low  desires,  he 
then  sinks  down  after  death  to  the  Jotun-world  in 
the  Abyss,  and  joins  in  with  the  Evil  Powers  in  the 
combat  against  the  Gods. 

This  struggle  of  the  World-Life  shall  end  in  a 
final  battle,  in  which  the  contending  powers  mutu- 
ally destroy  each  other,  and  the  World  which  the 
Gods  created  is  involved  in  their  destruction.  But 
it  shall  come  forth  again  more  glorious  and  purified. 
An  Eternal  God,  greater  than  all  ^sir,  shall  arise 
as  its  ruler  and  the  austere  Judge  of  departed  souls. 
Before  His  power  shall  Evil  depart  forever. 

The  whole  is  a  struggle  between  Light  and  Dark- 
ness, Spirit  and  Matter,  Yirtue  and  Vice, — a  strug- 
gle which  shall  end  in  the  triumph  of  Good  over 
Evil. 


III. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ASA-FAITH   ON 
THE  POPULAR  LIFE  AND  CUS- 
TOMS OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 


CHAPTER  XYI. 


MmiSTEES   OF   RELIGION. 


The  belief  in  Superior  Beings  wlio  control  the 
powers  of  Nature  and  the  destiny  of  mankind,  must 
always  create  in  man  an  effort  to  make  these  beings 
propitious,  and  thns  give  rise  to  Divine  Worship. 
The  more  humanlike  the  Gods  have  been  conceived 
to  be,  the  more  sensual  has  their  worship  been ;  and 
it  happened  with  the  votaries  of  the  Asa-faith  as 
with  so  many  other  heathens,  that  sacrifices,  gifts, 
vows,  and  ceremonies  were  regarded  by  the  multi- 
tude to  be  fully  as  acceptable  to  the  Gods  as  an  up- 
right life.  These  sacred  jxirformances  were  always 
more  or  less  symbolical,  as  they  were  intended  to  ex- 
press and  harmonize  with  the  presumed  essence  and 
attributes  of  tlie  Deity  invoked.     They  should,  il^ovc- 


MINISTERS   OF   RELIGION.  157 

fore,  take  place  according  to  certain  regulations, 
but  the  transgression  of  these  rules,  it  was  believed, 
might  offend  the  Divinity,  and  thus  produce  an 
effect  contrary  to  what  was  desired.  But  it  was  not 
always  convenient  for  the  common  people  to  be- 
come thoroughly  acquainted  with  these  rules;  the 
more  exact  knowledge  of  them  became  a  concern  of 
certain  individuals  better  initiated  in  the  religion, 
who  were  to  guide  the  rest  of  the  people,  or  rather, 
on  their  behalf  to  perform  the  sacred  offices  belong- 
ing to  divine  worship.  Thus  was  established  a  class 
of  servants  of  the  Gods,  or  priests,  who  were  thought 
to  be  nearer  the  Gods  than  other  people,  and  in  a 
manner  to  be  mediators  between  the  two. 

But  the  influence  of  the  priests  varied  according 
as  the  religion  under  which  they  ministered  was 
more  or  less  mysterious  in  its  character. 

In  many  of  the  heathen  religions  of  antiquity 
there  were  but  a  few  maxims  generally  known, 
while  the  greater  part  of  them  were  most  carefully 
veiled  in  mystery  by  the  priests,  who  formed  a 
peculiar  order,  distinctly  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  people.  In  those  religions  the  priests  them- 
selves figured  as  supernatural,  mysterious  beings, 
who  were  believed  to  hold  the  fate  of  other  people 
in  their  hands  ;  and  the  more  this  was  the  case,  so 
much  the  greater  was  their  influence  over  the  rude, 
uncultivated  masses.  This  kind  of  arrangement 
shows  conclusively  that  the  mythological  doctrines 
were  originally  foreign  to  the  people.  It  denotes  in 
spiritual  affairs  what  noble  rank,  or  a  strict  feudal 
system  indicates  in  temporal,  namely,  the  subjuga- 
8 


158  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

tion  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country  by 
in-wandering  strangers. 

There  were  other  heatlien  religions  in  which  no 
such  preestablished  mysteriousness  found  a  place ;  the 
order  of  priesthood  was  not  distinctly  set  ap_art  from 
the  people,  and  the  difference  between  priest  and 
layman  was  in  reality  only  the  usual  difference  be- 
tween the  more  and^  the  less  enlightened.  Tins 
relative  condition  generally  gives  evidence  of  a 
spiritual  independence  united  with  temporal  free- 
dom among  the  whole  people. 

To  the  latter  class  of  religions  the  Asa-faith  un- 
questionably belonged.  Every  religion  has  its  mys- 
teries, which,  in  reality,  could  never  become  univer- 
sally comprehensible;  and  this  was  in  some  degree 
the  case  with  the  one  now  under  consideration. 
But  these  mj'steries,  it  is  certain,  were  not  many,  and 
therefore  no  great  mysteriousness  nor  consequent 
distinct  separation  of  the  Asa  priests  was  recog- 
nized. Kings  and  chieftains  were  at  tlie  same  time 
j)riests  of  the  Gods,  and  they  universally  per- 
formed the  rites  of  divine  worship  in  large  pop- 
ular assemblies,  in  the  most  public  manner ; — one 
proof  among  many  that  the  Asa-faith  was  not,  as 
many  have  supposed,  introduced  among  the  North- 
men or  forced  upon  them  by  a  colony  of  foreign 
priests  long  after  the  peoj^le  had  separated  from 
kindred  races  as  an  independent  nation,  but  that  in 
its  germs  it  was  carried  along  with  the  people  them- 
selves from  former  places  of  abode,  and  was  after- 
ward freely  developed  among  them  in  their  new 
home. 

Snorri's  accomit,  in  the  first  thirteen   chapters 


MINISTERS   OF   RELIGION.  159 

of  tlie  Ynglinga  Saga,  of  the  arrival  of  Odin  and 
his  followers  in  the  North,  cannot  be  regarded 
otherwise  than  as  a  very  erroneous  interpretation  of 
the  old  Eddaic  myths,  but  which  is  in  accordance 
with  the  views  of  his  age.  His  account  of  the 
twelve  Diar  or  Drotnar,  who  presided  both  at  the 
sacrifices  and  at  the  judicial  proceedings  in  the 
ancient  Asgard,  and  who  afterward  accompanied 
Odin  to  the  I^orth,^  doubtless  rests  on  the  same 
foundation.  The  name  Diai'  is  evidently  the  same 
as  Tivar,  which,  as  above-mentionedjf  was  an  ap- 
pellation of  the  Gods.  Then,  even  as  Snorri's  own 
account  intimates,  the  twelve  Diar  were  no  other 
than  the  twelve  -^sirwlio  were  specially  worshiped. 
As  a  council  of  priests  they  exist  only  in  Snorri's 
interpretation  of  the  myths,  and  as  this  term,  ap- 
plied to  the  priests  of  the  ^sir,  does  not  occur 
either  with  the  same  author  afterwards  or  in  any 
other  reliable  poems  or  ancient  Sagas  of  the  E'orth- 
men,  it  becomes  very  doubtful  whether  it  was  used 
in  this  sense  at  all. 

It  is  otherwise  with  the  term  Drotnar.  Tlie  word 
drottinn  {j^lur.  drottnar)  is  much  used  in  the  Old- 
ITorse  in  the  sense  of  Lord  or  Master.  In  the  earli- 
est ages  this  name  was  peculiar  to  the  highest 
rulers  of  the  people,  who  at  the  same  time  presided 
at  the  courts  of  justice  and  were  high-priests;  but 
it  gave  way  at  an  early  period  to  lvonungr:|:  (king), 

*  Snorri :  Ynglinga  Saga,  2,  6. 
f  Chap.  11. 

X  According  to  Snorri,  t-wenty  ages  before  Ilarald  Hdrfagri,  or 
about  the  third  century. 


160  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

the  title  of  honor  which  has  been  customarj  since — 
a  change  which  some  suppose  to  indicate  that  thence- 
fortli  the  temporal  dignity  became  of  most  import- 
ance with  the  rulers  of  the  country,  whereas  the 
spiritual  dignity  had  the  ascendency  before,  or  that 
the  Warrior  in  them  began  to  crowd  out  the  Priest." 
Thus  the  term  Drottnar  appears  at  one  time  to  have 
been  applied  to  the  priests  of  the  Asa-faith,  al- 
though it  was  only  in  so  far  as  they  were  also  the 
suj^reme  rulers  of  the  people ;  and  it  went  out  of 
use  long  before  the  time  when  history  first  sheds 
any  clear  light  upon  the  heathen  state  of  the  IS'orth- 
men,  which  was  not,  as  is  well  known,  until  near  its 
conclusion. 

A  third  name  conferred  upon  the  priests  is  go5ar 
or  hofgo5ar.  The  name  go5i  can  be  derived  from 
go5,  God,  and  signifies  a  servant  of  God,  a  priest ; 
hofgo5i  (hof,  a  temple)  signifies  priest  or  superin- 
tendent of  a  temple.  The  term  go5i  was  universal 
in  Iceland.  That  island  was  divided  into  four 
Fj6r5ungar  or  fourths ;  in  each  Fjur5ung  there  were 
originally  three  Thingsoknar  or  judicial  districts, 
and  in  each  of  these  again,  three  chief  temples 
(liofu5-liof ).  He  who  presided  over  such  a  temple 
was  called  Go5i,  and  was  at  the  same  time  chieftain 
and  judge  in  the  district,f  and  in  the  former  char- 
acter he  was  as  influential  as  in  that  of  priest. 
His  oJ[ficial  dignity,  with  the  influence  depending 
on  it,  was  called  in  Iceland  Go5or5,:t:  and  was  cn- 

*  Geijer:  Svea-Rikes  IlJifder.     Vol.  I.,  495. 

\  Landnamabok  IV.,  1  (fslendinga  Sogur,  Vol.  I,  1843). 

X  Literally:  God-word — orO,  word,  authority. 


MINISTERS   OF   RELIGION.  161 

tered  upon  with  a  solemn  ceremonial  in  which  the 
future  Go5i  slaughtered  a  ram  and  dipped  his  hands 
in  its  blood  (at  rj65a  sik  i  go5a  bl65i,  to  sprinkle 
himself  with  good  blood).*  It  remained  as  a  tem- 
poral dignity,  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
upon  the  island,  until  it  was  subjected  to  the  kings 
of  N'orway.  That  the  office  and  the  name,  like 
most  of  the  religious  and  judicial  institutions  of 
Iceland,  were  transported  thither  from  Norway,  can- 
not be  doubted,  although  the  name  Go5i  is  very 
rarely  mentioned  in  the  Sagas  as  being  in  use  in  the 
latter  country.  One  of  the  original  settlers  of  Ice- 
land, Thorhad  the  Old,  had  been  hofgoSi  in  the 
temple  of  M?eri  in  Tln-ondheim  ;f  but  in  general, 
when  those  who  conducted  the  sacred  rites  of  hea- 
thendom in  Norway  are  mentioned,  it  is  only  said 
of  them  that  they  ''  attended  to  the  temples " 
(var5veittu  hof )  ;X  that  they  "  counseled  the  most 
for  the  sacrifices"  (re5u  mest  fyrir  bl6tum);§  that 
they  "supported  the  sacrifices"  (heldu  upp  blo- 
tum);||  without  any  name  of  dignity  being  given 
them  as  priests.  This  was,  no  doubt,  because  in  Nor- 
way the  Hersir  (a  baron  or  ruler  of  a  hera5  or  dis- 
trict) w^as  always  a  Go5i  at  the  same  time,  but  was 
universally  designated  by  the  first-named  title,  as 
the  most  distinguished.  But  in  Iceland  the  name 
hersir  was  not  used,  wherefore  go5i  took  its  place, 

*  Ljosvetninga  saga  (fsl.  S.,  Vol.  IT,,  1830). 

f  Landnb.  IV.,  6. 

X  lb.  V.  8 ;  Eyrb.  s,  3. 

§  Snorri:    Saga  Hikonar  G65a.,  19. 

II  Snor. :  S.  OlafsTryggvasonar,  75. 


162  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

denoting  the  rnler  of  a  hera5,  both  in  his  priestly 
and  temporal  calling.  As  the  dignity  of  Ilersir  was 
properly  hereditary  in  Korway,  so  was  the  Go5or5 
in  Iceland  to  be  regarded  as  the  possession  of  cer- 
tain families. 

Althougli  the  barons  in  Korway  were  thus,  as 
Gobi,  the  actual  priests  of  the  Asa-faith,  there  were 
also  other  secular  rulers  who  conducted  the  public 
worshij^  of  the  Gods.  Kings  or  Jarls  often  directed 
the  great  sacrificial  festivals  which  were  attended 
by  all  the  inhabitants  of  greater  or  smaller  portions 
of  the  country,  and  tliey  had  the  chief  seats  at  the 
sacrificial  banquets  connected  with  them.^'  It  was 
believed  that  the  zeal  of  the  kings  in  the  worship 
of  the  Gods  brought  prosperity  to  the  people,  while 
negligence  in  this  respect  on  their  part  brought  ruin 
upon  the  whole  country,  caused  unpropitious  sea- 
sons and  famine.  For  a  neglect  of  this  kind  king 
Olaf  Trotelgia  of  Yermaland  had  to  atone  with  his 
life;t  while  on  the  other  hand,  to  Ilakon  Jarl's 
zeal  in  the  worship  of  the  ^sir  was  attributed  the 
fruitfulness  which,  after  many  years  of  scarcity,  re- 
turned to  JSTorway  when  he  became  the  ruler  of  the 
country.:]:  Moreover,  every  one  could  worship  at 
his  home  the  Deities  which  he  adored  the  most 
therefore  it  was  not  unusual  for  the  rich  landsman 
to  have  near  his  house  a  temple  in  which  he  per- 
formed the  priestly  rites  for  himself.§ 

*  Fri5>j6fs  S,  9;  Snor. :  Sag.  Hdk.  G65a,  IG,  18. 
f  Snor, :  Yngl.  S.,  47. 
X  lb.:  Sag.  01.  Tryggv.,  16. 

§  Olaf  Tryggv.  S.  in  Fornmanna  Sogur,   145,  201 ;  Droplauga 
Bonar  S.  26. 


MINISTERS    OF   RELIGION.  163 

"Women  also  sometimes  conducted  the  sacrifices 
and  performed  other  sacred  rites  belonging  to  the 
Asa  worship,*  and  we  even  find  that  in  Iceland 
they  sometimes  presided  at  the  temples.  Such  a 
priestess  was  called  Gy5ia  or  IIofgy5ia. 

The  Go5ar,  or  priests,  had  charge  of  the  continua- 
tion and  propagation  of  the  religious  doctrines, 
which  in  those  times  took  place  by  oral  delivery 
from  generation  to  generation.  It  is  probable  that 
they  delivered  the  religious  tenets  publicly  at  the 
solemn  festivals,  and  most  generally  in  poetry. 
The  name  Tliulr,  a  speaker,f  w^hich  occurs  in  many 
places  in  the  poems  of  the  Older  Edda,  was  the  ap- 
pellation of  such  a  teacher,  who  during  his  dis- 
course was  accustomed  to  sit  upon  a  seat  of  distinc- 
tion (Jularstoll).  The  religious  tenets  themselves 
are  often  called,  in  the  ancient  poems,  runar  or 
stafir.  The  former  denotes  originally,  speech^  the 
latter,  luritten  charaGters  ;  which  latter  signification 
the  word  riinar  also  obtained  afterwards.  In 
ancient  times,  however,  both  terms  appear  to  have 
been  used  synonymously  of  the  doctrines  which 
were  orally  delivered  and  retained  in  the  memory. 
Many  of  the  mythologic  poems  of  the  Older  Edda 
are  evidently  didactic  poems  which  were  delivered 
before  the  assembled  multitude  at  the  sacrificial  fes- 
tivals, as  well  as  in  the  instruction  of  the  intended 
ministers  of  religion.  The  continual  employment  in 
the  Skaldic  minstrelsy  of  the  myths  of  the  Asa 
mythology  to  form  its  poetic  figures,  proves  that  a 

*  Fri5>.  S.  9 ;  Kristni.  S.  2. 

f  From  |)ylia,  to  recite,  speak  extempore. 


164:  KELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

knowledge  of  its  doctrines  was  diffused  among  the 
people ;  and  therefore  these  embellishments,  bor- 
rowed from  the  religious  doctrines,  could  not  be  pre- 
served in  poetry  alone,  but  must  have  been  intelli- 
gible to  the  common  people  for  many  centuries  after 
the  downfall  of  the  religion  from  which  they  were 
borrowed. 


THE   ^SIR   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.  165 


CHAFTEE  XVn. 

THE    JESIR   AS    OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP    AMONG   THE   NORTH- 
MEN. 

All  the  Gods  of  the  Asa-faith  were  certainly  in- 
voked and  worshiped  by  .the  heathen  ISTorthmen, 
although  only  a  few  of  them  are  so  mentioned  in 
the  ancient  historical  accounts,  that  we  may  know 
clearly  how  their  being  was  understood  by  the  peo- 
ple, or  in  what  character  each  one  was  especially 
worshiped. 

Odin  was  specially  worshiped  as  the  God  of  War 
— as  the  Dispenser  of  Victory ;  therefore  the  first 
filled  horn  at  the  sacrificial  festivals  was  consecrated 
to  him  for  victory.*  It  was  believed  that  he  re- 
joiced in  the  battles  of  men,  which  brought  heroes 
to  him  in  Valhalla ;  and  hence  the  blame  of  a  hero's 
fall  was  often  laid  upon  him  by  the  slayer.  Thus 
Dag  Hognason  says,  in  exculpating  himself  before 
his  sister  Sigrtin,  who  curses  him  because  he  has 
slain  her  husband  Helgi  Hundingsbani : 


*  Snor.:  Sag.  Hdk.  G6Qa,  16, 
8* 


166  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

"  Mad  art  thou,  sister ! 
And  distracted, 
That  on  thy  brother 
Thou  callest  down  curses. 
Odin  ahone 
All  misery  brings, 
For  he  between  kinsmen 
The  battle-runes  bore."* 

Before  a  battle  began  tlie  combatants  directed 
eacli  other  to  Yallialla,  and  the  hostile  host  was  con- 
signed to  Odin  by  casting  a  spear  over  it ;  a  per- 
formance which  nndonbtedly  bad  its  type  in  the 
myth  of  Odin,  in  which  he  is  represented  as  awaken- 
ing the  first  battle  in  the  world  by  throwing  his 
spear  among  the  people.f  Before  entering  npon  a 
march,  or  undertaking  a  warlike  enterprise,  they 
sought,  by  offerings,  to  gain  the  favor  of  Odin.  Thus, 
it  is  related  of  Hakon  Jarl  when  he  had  cast  off 
Christianity,  which  had  been  forced  upon  him,  and, 
on  his  journey  home  to  JS^orway  from  Jutland,  was 
driven  out  of  his  course  to  the  coasts  of  East  Goth- 
land by  a  storm,  that  he  landed  there  and  made 
preparations  for  a  great  sacrifice.  During  the  sac- 
rifice two  ravens  came  flying  along  and  croaked 
loudly.  By  this  appearance  the  Jarl  thought  he 
saw  that  Odin  had  accepted  the  offering  and  would 
grant  him  success  in  battle,  lie  therefore  burned 
all  his  ships,  and,  sword  in  hand,  cut  his  way  with 
his  army  through  the  whole  of  Gothland  back  to 
Norway.it 

•>^  The  O.  Edda:  HelgakviOa  Ilundingsbaua,  11.,  32. 

t  Hervarar  S.  5;  Eyrb.  S.  4-i ;    Fornm.  S.  V.  p.  250;  Yciluspd 

28. 

X  Snor. :  01.  Tryggv.  S.  28. 


TUE   iESIR   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.  167 

The  fallen  warrior  rejoiced  in  liis  dying  hour  that 
hy  Odin's  invitation  he  shonld  go  to  Yalhalla  and 
drink  ale  with  the  J^sir ;  as  the  ancient  skald  makes 
Ragnar  L65br6k  sing  in  the  den  of  serpents : 

"  Home  bid  me  the  Dislr, 
Whom,  from  the  warrior-halls, 
Odia  has  sent  me  ; 
Glad  shall  I  with  the  ^sir 
Drink  ale  in  the  high-seat. 
Loathsome  are  life's  hours  ; 
Laughing  shall  I  die."* 

It  is  often  related  in  the  ancient  legends  that 
Odin  wonld  make  his  appearance  before  or  during  a 
battle,  either  to  secure  the  victory  to  his  favorites,  or 
to  set  a  limit  to  their  victorious  career  on  earth  and 
summon  them  away  to  himself. 

Odin  lent  his  spear  to  Dag  Hognason  that  he 
might  slay  with  it  the  hero  Helgi  Hundingsbani, 
whose  spirit,  therefore,  met  with  the  most  distin- 
guished reception  in  Yalhalla.  "  Odin,"  it  is  stated, 
"invited  him  to  share  in  the  rule  of  all  things  with 

himself,  "t 

As  an  aged  one-eyed  man  with  a  slouched  hat 
upon  his  head,  Odin  once  made  his  appearance  in 
King  A^olsting's  hall  and  ■  selected  Sigmund,  the 
king's  son,  as  his  favorite,  by  presenting  to  him  a 
sword.  Sigmund  became  a  victorious  hero,  but 
when  his  time  was  come  Odin  again  appeared  to 
him  in  the  same  form,  in  the  midst  of  a  battle,  and 
held  his  spear  before  his  sword.     The  sword  broke, 

*  Krakumdl  29. 

f  The  0.  Edda :  Ilelgakv.  Hundingsb.  IL  36,  et  sup. 


168  RELIGION   OF   THE  NOETHMEN. 

and  Sigmimd  was  left  severely  wounded  upon 
^^the  battle-field.  Ilis  wife  wished  to  cure  him  but 
he  declined  her  help  ;  "  Odin,"  said  he,  '^  wishes  not 
that  I  shall  swing  my  sword  again  after  it  is  once 
broken ;  I  have  fought  as  long  as  it  was  his  will."* 

The  Danish  King  Ilarald  Hildatand  was  from 
his  childhood  consecrated  to  Odin,  and  he  was 
afterwards  throughout  his  whole  life  led  on  by  this 
God  to  victory.  But  in  his  advanced  age  Odin  in- 
volved him  in  a  quarrel  with  his  nephew,  Sigurd 
Ring,  then  with  his  own  hand,  under  the  semblance 
of  Brun,  a  military  chief,  guided  the  chariot  of  the 
blind  king  at  the  great  battle  of  Bravalla  Heath, 
and  finally,  in  the  tumult  of  battle,  slew  his  favor- 
ite with  his  own  war-club. f 

"VVhenStyrbjorn  Sviakappi — i.  <3.,  Sweden's  Cham- 
pion— attacked  his  uncle  the  'Swedish  king  Eirik 
Sigrsseli,  the  latter  applied  to  Odin  and  off'ered  him- 
self up  to  him  for  the  sake  of  victory.  Odin  ap- 
peared to  him  in  the  form  of  a  large  man  with 
a  slouched  hat,  reached  him  a  reed  and  bade  him 
shoot  it  over  the  hosts  of  Styrbjorn,  with  the  words 
"  Odin  owns  you  all !"  Eirik  did  as  he  was  com- 
manded, and  the  reed  became  a  spear  as  it  flew 
through  the  air  above  the  enemy.  Styrbjorn  and 
his  people  were  struck  with  blindness  and  buried 
beneath  a  mountain  slide.:]: 

Sometimes,  also,  it  was  believed,  Odin  would  call 
his  favorites  to  himself,  when  not  engaged  in  battle. 

*  VolsiangaS.  3,  11,  12. 
f  Saxo  Grammaticus  1,  7-8 
X  Styrb.  YaUt,  2. 


THE   JESIR   AS   OBJECTS   OF   WORSHir.  169 

YikaiT,  I^ng  of  IIor5aland,  it  seems,  was  consecrated 
or  given  to  Odin  from  his  birth.*  He  became  a 
mighty  and  victorious  king,  but  was  slain  at  last  by 
his  foster-brother  Starka5,  at  the  instigation  of  Odin. 
It  happened  that  Yikarr  and  Starka5,  on  one  of 
their  Sea-roving  expeditions,  were  delayed  by  a 
head-wind,  and  when  the  cause  came  to  be  inquired 
into,  they  learned  that  Odin  required  a  man  from 
among  their  hosts.  Lots  were  therefore  drawn,  and 
the  lot  fell  upon  Yikarr.  All  were  struck  with 
terror,  and  it  was  resolved  to  reconsider  the  matter 
on  the  following  day.  But  in  the  night  Odin  ap- 
peared to  Starka5  in  the  guise  of  his  foster-brother 
Hrosshars-Grani,  bade  him  send  Yikarr  to  him,  and 
gave  him  a  spear  which  seemed  to  be  the  stalk  of  a 
reed.  On  the  next  day  they  held  a  consultation  on 
the  sacrifice  of  Yikarr,  and  at  the  suggestion  of 
Starka5  it  was  concluded  to  undertake  it  for  the 
sake  of  appearances.  The  king  mounted  the  stump 
of  a  tree,  and  Starka5  laid  about  his  neck  a  piece  of 
calf-gut,  the  other  end  of  which  was  fastened  to  a 
tender  fir-twig.  Then  StarkaS  touched  him  with 
the  reed  and  said,  "  Now  do  I  give  thee  unto  Odin !" 
But  in  the  same  instant  the  stump  tumbled  away 
from  imder  Yikarr's  feet,  the  intestine  around  his 
neck  became  a  withe,  the  twig,  which  sprang  up- 
ward with  force,  swung  him  up  into  the  tree,  and 
the  reed  in  Starka5's  hand  was  transformed  into  a 
spear,  which  pierced  through  the  body  of  the  king.f 
According   to   the  Sagas,  when  Odin  revealed 

*IIdlfsS.  1. 
f  Gautreks  S,  7. 


170  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

himself  lie  made  liis  appearance  in  tlie  form  of  an 
elderly,  grave-looking,  one-eyed  man,  usually  clad 
in  a  green,  blue,  or  spotted  mantle,  with  a  slouched 
hat  upon  his  head  and  a  spear  in  hand."^ 

Although  Gdin  is  represented  in  the  Asa  My- 
thology as  the  highest  of  the  ^sir,  yet  it  appears 
that  Thor  did  not  hold  an  inferior  place  in  the 
worship  of  the  people,  especially  among  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Norway  and  Iceland.  There  is  evidence  of 
this  in  the  circumstance  that  temples  dedicated  to 
him  alone,  or  in  which  he  was  the  chief  object  of 
worship,  are  so  often  mentioned  in  the  ancient 
Sagas,  as  well  as  the  firm  faith  which  not  merely 
individual  Northmen  but  the  people  of  whole 
provinces  of  IS'orway  are  said  to  have  placed  in 
him  in  preference  to  any  other  deity  of  heathendom. 
There  were  temples  dedicated  to  Thor  on  the  island 
of  Moster  near  HorSaland,  on  Randsey  near  l^aum- 
dal,  upon  Thorsnes  in  Iceland,  at  Ilundsthorp  in 
Gudbrandsdal;  he  was  the  principal  Divinity 
wor&hiped  in  the  chief-temple  at  Mreri  in  Inner- 
Tbrondheim  and  at  many  other  places  in  ISTorway. 
The  people  of  Gudbrandsdal  put  their  highest  trust 
in  Thor.  When  Thorolf  Mostrarskee-o^  wished  to 
leave  E'orway,  he  consulted  Thor  in  order  to  learn 
whither  he  should  go,  and  Thor  directed  him  to  Ice- 
land.f  By  Thor's  direction,  likewise,  the  Northman 
Kraku  Hrei6ar  selected  a  dwelling-place  upon  that 

*  VolsnngaS.  r>,  11,  13;  Norna-Gests  S.  6;  ITdlfs  S.   1  ;  Snor. : 
Olaf  Tryggv.  S.  71  ;  01.  Tryggv.  5,  in  ^kalh.  GS ;  IlorOs  S.  14. 
f  Ejrbyggja  S.  4. 


THE   jaSIR   AS   OBJECTS   OF   WORSHIP.  171 

island,*  and  so  did  Ilelgi  the  Meagre,  wlio  went 
thither  from  Su5r-e}g'ar  (Sonth  Islands).t 

Those  who  trusted  more  to  their  own  strength  in 
battle  than  to  the  protection  of  Odin,  worshiped 
Thor  as  the  BestoWer  of  Strength,  and  at  the  sacri- 
ficial festivals  consecrated  to  him  the  first  filled 
horn.  This  was  done  by  making  the  sign  of  the 
Hammer  over  the  horn,  as  is  seen  in  the  well-known 
history  of  King  Hakon  Athelsteins-fostri,  who  during 
a  sacrificial  festival  at  IIla5i  made  the  sign  of  the 
Cross  over  the  horn  consecrated  to  Odin,  an  act 
which  Sigurd  Jarl  explained  by  saying  that  the 
king  did  as  all  do  who  trust  in  their  own  strength  ; 
— he  consecrated  the  horn  to  Thor  by  the  sign  of 
the  Hammer.:}:  It  is  not  improbable  that  Thor's 
Hammer-sign  wa^  also  employed  in  the  marriage 
ceremonies  of  the  lN'"orthmen,  as  a  consecration  of 
the  union  of  man  and  wife,  as  well  as  at  their  fune- 
ral ceremonies,  of  which  usage  the  type  was  in  the 
myth  of  Thor,  who  consecrated  Baldur's  funeral 
pile  with  his  Hammer.§  In  both  cases  the  sign  of 
the  Hammer  was  to  frighten  away  evil  Jotun- 
beings,  and  prevent  them  from  disturbing  the 
domestic  peace  of  the  married,  and  the  repose  of 
the  dead  in  the  grave. 

Thor  was  also  invoked  by  persons  about  to  en- 
gage in  wrestling.  When  the  Icelander  Thord,  who 
was  a  very  experienced  wrestler,  was  going  to  try 

*  Landnb.  Ill,  7. 
f  lb.  I,  12. 

X  Snor.  :  Hdk.  G65.  S.  18. 

§  The  L.  Edda  :  Gylf.  49. 


172  RELIGION   OF  TIIE   NORTHMEN. 

liis  strength  with  his  countryman  Gunnlaug  Orms- 
tunga,  he  called  upon  Thor  beforehand.  Gunn- 
laug, however,  tripped  him  and  threw  him  upon  the 
ground,  but  at  the  same  time  wrenched  his  own  foot 
out  of  joint.*  But  it  appears  that  the  Northmen 
worshiped  Thor  especially  to  secure  in  him  a  pro- 
tector against  Trolls  and  Evil  Powers  of  a  Jotun 
nature,  which  were  believed  to  have  their  abodes  in 
mountains  and  wild,  desert  places.  According  to 
an  ancient  legend,  he  had  delivered  the  inhabitants 
of  Norway  from  these  Powers ;  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that  he  was  specially  worshiped  in  that  country.f 

Thor  was  believed  occasionally  to  reveal  himself 
to  men.  In  the  form  of  a  red-bearded  man  he 
made  his  appearance  in  the  camp  of  the  Swedish 
hero  Styrbjorn,  when  the  latter  had  invoked  his  aid 
against  his  uncle  Eirik  the  Victorious,  whom  Odin 
protected. J  As  a  young,  red-bearded  man  of  large 
stature  and  a  beautiful  countenance,  strong  and  sup- 
ple in  wrestling,  he  revealed  himself  to  King  Olaf 
Tryggvason,  and  related  to  him  how  in  the  Olden 
Time,  when  the  Northmen  invoked  his  aid,  he  had 
with  his  Hammer  beaten  two  Troll-women  who  tor- 
mented them.§  Tlior's  red-beard  was,  doubtless,  to 
indicate  the  fiery  nature  of  the  Thimder-God. 

That  Njor5  was  an  object  of  the  zealous  worshi}) 
of  the  Northmen  may  be  readily  inferred,  as  he  was 
believed  to  protect  Sea-faring,  in  which  our  fore- 

*  Gunnlaugs  Ormstiinga  S.  10. 
f  OL  Tr.  S.  inFornm.  S.  213. 
X  Styrb.  f)dttr,  2. 
§  01.  Tryggv.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  213. 


THE    ^SIR    AS    OBJECTS    OF    WORSHIP.  1Y3 

fathers  busied  themselves  so  much,  and  it  is  said  of 
him,  in  one  of  the  Old  Eddaic  poems,  that  "he  rules 
over  temples  and  places  of  sacrifice  innumer- 
able."* Njor5  and  his  son  Frey  are  named  in  the 
heathen  oath-formula  of  the  Northmen  ;t  they  are 
called  upon,  in  a  poem  of  Egil  Skallagrimsson,  to 
banish  Eirik  Blood-axe  and  Queen  Gunhilda  from 
Norway  ;:|:  they  are  represented  by  the  same  skald, 
in  his  Arinljarnar  Drdjpa  as  "Bestowers  of 
Kiches,"§  and  the  extremely  rich  are  said  to  be 
"rich  as  Njor5." 

Still  more  numerous  are  the  traces  in  our  ancient 
Sagas  of  the  widely-extended  worship  of  Frey — 
the  God  of  Fruitfulness — among  the  Northmen.  In 
Throndheim  there  was  a  temple  in  Olaf  Tryggva- 
son's  days,  in  which  Frey  was  zealously  worshiped. 
When  the  King,  after  he  had  overthrown  the  statue 
of  the  God,  upbraided  the  landsmen  for  their  stupid 
idolatry,  and  asked  them  wherein  Frey  had  evinced 
his  power,  they  answered,  "  Frey  often  talked  with 
us,  foretold  us  the  future,  and  granted  us  good  sea- 
sons and  peace." II 

The  Norse  chieftain  Ingemund  Thorsteinsson, 
who  in  the  days  of  Harald  Harfagri  settled  at 
Yatnsdal  in  Iceland,  built  near  his  homestead  a 
temple  which  appears  to  have  been  specially  dedi- 
cated to  Frey,  who  had  in  a  manner  pointed  out  a 

*  The  0.  Edda:  Vaf>rii5ni8mdl,  38. 

f  Landnmb.  FV.  7. 

X  Egils  S.  58,  365. 

§  Egils  S.  80. 

II  01.  Tr.  S.  Skalh.  II.  49,  50. 


174  KELICrlON    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

dwelling-place  to  liim;  for  in  digging  a  place  for 
his  Ondvegis-sulur,  or  pillars  of  tlie  High-seat, 
Ingemund  found  in  the  earth  an  image  of  Frey 
which  he  had  lost  in  JSTorway."^-'  The  Icelander 
Thorgrim  of  Sjobol  was  a  zealous  worshiper  of  Frey, 
and  held  sacrificial  festivals  in  his  honor  during  the 
winter  nights.  When  Thorgrim  was  dead  and 
buried,  the  snow  never  settled  upon  his  funeral 
mound ;  this  was  believed  to  be  a  favor  shown  by 
Frey,  for  "the  God  loved  him  so  for  the  sacrifices 
he  had  made  that  he  would  not  have  it  to  become 
cold  between  them."f 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  estate  of  Thvera  in  Eyja- 
fjorS  in  Iceland  there  was  a  temple  to  Frey,  and  the 
place  became  so  holy  that  no  criminal  dared  to 
tarry  there ;  "  Frey  did  not  allow  of  it."  "When  the 
chieftain  Thorkel  the  Tall  was  expelled  from  Thvera 
by  Glum  Eyjolfsson,  universally  known  by  name  of 
Yiga-Glum,  he  led  a  full-grown  ox  to  Frey's  temple 
before  he  left,  and  said,  "  Long  have  I  put  all  my 
trust  in  thee,  Oh  Freyr !  Many  gifts  hast  thou 
accepted  of  me  and  repaid  them  well;  now  do  I 
give  this  ox  to  thee,  that  thou  may  one  day  cause 
Glum  to  leave  this  Thvera  land  even  as  much 
against  his  will  as  I  do  now.  Do  thou  give  me  a 
sign  that  thou  acceptest  the  ofi'ering!"  At  that 
moment  the  ox  bellowed  loudly  and  fell  dead  upon 
the  ground.  Thorkel  considered  this  a  good  omen, 
and  moved  away  with  a  lighter  heart.     Afterward, 

*  VatnsJ.  S.  10.  15. 
f  Gisl.  Surs.  S.  15,  18. 


THE   MBin   AS   OBJECTS   OF   WORSHIP.  175 

Glum,  in  his  old  days,  became  involved  in  a 
dangerous  suit  for  manslaughter,  which  ended  with 
his  having  to  relinquish  Thveni  to  the  murdered 
man's  son.  On  the  night  before  he  rode  to  the 
Assembly  at  which  the  case  was  to  be  decided,  he 
dreamed  that  he  saw  Frey  sitting  on  the  banks  of 
the  stream;  his  own  departed  friends  were  beseech- 
ing the  God  that  Glum  might  not  be  driven  away 
from  Thveni,  but  Frey  answered  them  short  and 
angrily,  for  he  now  remembered  the  ox  which  Thorkel 
the  Tall  had  presented  to  him..  After  this  dream 
and  the  subsequent  forced  removal.  Glum  no  longer 
honored  Frey  so  much  as  he  had  done  before.'^ 

In  the  temple  at  Upsala  in  Sweden,  Frey,  together 
with  Odin  and  Thor,  was  especially  worshiped  ;t 
and  that  in  some  provinces  of  Sweden  the  people 
put  their  highest  trust  in  him,  and  even  believed 
that  he  sometimes  appeared  in  human  form,  is 
attested  by  the  story — somewhat  embellished,  it  is 
true — of  the  E'orthman  Gunnar  Helming,  who  gave 
himself  out  in  Sweden  as  Frey. if 

■The  horse,  it  appears^ was  regarded  as  a  favorite 
animal  of  Frey.  At  his  temple  in  Throndheim  it  is 
said  there  were  horses  belonging  to  him.§  It  is  re- 
lated of  the  Icelander  Eafnkel  Freysgo5i  that  he 
loved  Frey  above  all  other  gods,  and  bestowed  upon 
him  an  equal  share  in  all  his  best  possessions.     He 

^'  Viga-Gl.  S.,  5,  9,  19,  26. 

f  Adam  of  Bremen:  de  situ  Dauiw,    233.     The   name  Frieco 
which  here  occurs,  can  hardly  refer  to  any  other  god  than  Freyr. 
X  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  1^3. 
§  01.  Tr.  S.  Skalh.  II.  49. 


176  RELIGION   OF  THE   NOETHMEN. 

had  a  brown  horse,  called  Frey-faxi  (Frey's  horse), 
which  he  loved  so  highly  that  he  made  a  solemn 
vow  to  slay  the  man  who  should  ride  this  horse 
against  his  will,  a  vow  which  he  also  fulfilled.*  An- 
other Icelander,  Brand,  had  a  horse  also  called 
Frey-faxi  which  he  made  so  much  of  that  he  was 
said  to  believe  in  it  as  in  a  Divinity  f 

It  was  the  same  case  with  the  swine,  perhaps,  as 
with  the  horse.  The  Boar  Gullinbursti,  with  which 
Frey  drove,  has  been  already  alluded  to ;  and  the 
story  of  the  fabulous  king  HeiSrek,  who  on  Yule- 
eve  made  solemn  vows  upon  the  Atonement-Boar 
(S6nar-golltr),:j:  sacred  to  Frey  and  Freyja,  appears 
to  refer  to  an  actual  custom  of  heathen  antiquity ; 
for  we  find  also,  in  one  of  the  prose  supplements  to 
the  ancient  Eddaic  poem  of  Ilelgi  Hjorvar5sson, 
that  the  Sonar-goUtr  is  mentioned,  as  being  led  out 
on  Yule-eve,  in  order  that  they  might,  with  hands 
laid  upon  it,  make  solemn  vows.§ 

The  worship  of  Baldur  we  find  spoken  of  only  in 
Frithjof 's  Saga,  which  relates  that  in  Baldur's  grove,  in 
Sokn,  there  was  a  great  teirij[)le  to  many  gods,  among 
whom,  however,  Baldur  was  chiefly  worshiped.  So 
great  was  the  sanctity  of  the  place,  it  is  stated,  that 
not  any  violence  whatever  should  be  done  to  man 
or  beast,  nor  could  there  be  any  sexual  intercourse 
there. II     Baldur's  worship  therefore  bore   the  im- 

*  Rafnk.  Freyeg.  S.  pp.  4,  6,  11. 

f  Vatnsd.  S.  34. 

X  Ilervarar  S.  14. 

§  "  Urn  kveldit  6ra  heitstrengingar ;  var  framleiddr  sonargolltr- 
log5u  menn  jjar  d  hcndr  sinar,  ok  6treng5u  menn  d  heit  at 
bragarfulli."    The  0.  Edda:  IlelgakviSa  IljorvarCs-sonar,  30. 

II  Fri6>j6f8  S.  1. 


THE   MSIR   As    OBJECTS    OF    WORSHIP.  177 

press  of  the  goodness  and  innocence  of  wliicli  he 
was  himself  the  emblem. 

Of  the  worship  of  Forseti  among  the  JSTorthmen, 
we  have,  indeed,  no  very  positive  information  ;  but 
we  find  that  this  god  was  zealously  worshiped  by 
the  Frisians,  and  that  he  had  a  very  holy  temple  on 
an  island  which  was  called  after  him  Foseteslant, 
the  Helgoland  of  the  present  day.* 

To  Bragi  the  heathen  Northmen  consecrated  the 
replenished  horn,  called  Bragi's  Horn  (Bragarfulli), 
which  was  emptied  at  the  great  festivals  while 
solemn  vows  were  made.  Bragi,  the  god  of  the 
Skaldic  art,  was  to  hear  the  vows  relating  to  the 
great  deeds,  whose  memory  was  to  be  delivered  to 
posterity  through  the  mouth  of  the  Skald. 

Only  a  few  traces  of  the  worship  of  the  Asynjur, 
or  Goddesses,  are  to  be  found  in  the  ancient  poems 
and  Sagas.  Concerning  a  certain  Otar,  it  is  stated 
in  the  Eddaic  poem  Hyndlulj65,  that  he  always  put 
his  trust  in  the  Asynjur.  The  Yalkyrja  Sigrdrifa, 
when  she  awakes  from  her  enchanted  sleep,  salutes 
the  ^sir  and  Asynj  ur. f  Borgny ,  a  king's  daughter, 
calls  upon  Friga  and  Frej-ja  to  reward  Oddrtin,  who 
had  been  with  her  during  severe  pangs  of  child- 
birth and  had  assisted  at  her  delivery.:!:  When  King 
Eerer  and  his  wife  called  upon  the  Gods  for  off- 
spring, Friga  and  Odin,  it  is  stated,  heard  their 
prayers  and  presented  them  with  a  son.§     Signy, 

*  J.  Grimm:  Dent.  Myth.  pp.  210,  212. 
f  The  O.  Edda:  Sigrdrifumiil,  4. 
X  lb.:  Oddriinargrdtr,  10. 
§  Volsanga  S.  2. 


178  RELIGION   OF   THE   NOKTnMEN. 

the  Queen  of  King  Alfrek  of  IIor5aland,  invoked 
the  aid  of  Freyja  when  she  was  going  to  vie  with 
the  king's  other  wife,  Geirhild,  in  ale-brewing.  It 
seems  that  the  king  had  to  get  rid  of  one  of  them 
on  account  of  their  irreconcilable  enmity  toward 
each  other,  so  he  declared  that  he  would  retain  the 
one  who  brewed  the  best  ale.  Signy,  however,  was 
foiled  by  her  rival,  for  the  latter  had  called  upon 
Odin,  who  revealed  himself  to  her  in  advance,  in 
the  form  of  a  certain  Ilott;  and  as  he  gave  her  his 
spittle  for  yest,  Geirhild's  ale  became  the  best.^^ 

Friga  and  Freyja,  as  the  highest  among  the 
Asynjur,  were,  without  doubt,  the  most  especially 
worshiped.  In  a  temple  in  Iceland  their  statues 
are  said  to  have  been  seated  upon  a  throne  opposite 
those  of  Thor  and  Frey.  When  the  Icelander 
Hjalti  Skeggjason,  newly  converted  to  Christianity, 
wished  to  express  his  contempt  for  the  heathen 
Gods,  he,  in  a  ditty,  called  Freyja  a  bitch,  and  Hall- 
fred  yandr8e5askald,  in  a  verse  that  he  made  at 
Olaf  Tryggvason's  request,  in  order  to  display  J^is 
Christian  disposition,  names  Freyja  among  tlie 
Gods  whom  he  had  forsaken  for  Christ.f 

*  IKlfs  S.  1. 

f  Ol.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  fi.  217,  ITO, 


INFERIOR  DEITIES  AS  OBJECTS  OF  WORSHIP.         179 


CHAPTER   XYIIL 

INFERIOR   DEITIES    AS    OBJECTS    OF   WORSHIP.    ■ 

Beside  tlie  ^sir  pro]3er,  tliere  were  also  certain 
inferior  Divinities  arising  out  of  the  Asa  Faith, 
which  were  honored  and  adored  by  the  heathen 
jN^orthmen.  Of  this  class  of  superior  beings  were 
the  Disir  Landvaettir,  and  Alfor. 

The  name  Disir  {sing.Dis)  properly  denotes  God- 
desses, but  it  is  used  especially  of  a  peculiar  kind 
of  supernatural  beings,  who  also  frequently  appear 
under  the  appellations :  Hamingjur  {sing.  Hamin- 
gja),  the  Goddesses  of  Good  Fortune,  and  Fylgjur 
{sing.  Fylgja),  Following,  Attending  Spirits.  They 
were  nearly  related  to  the  Yalkyijur  and  JN'ornir, 
especially  to  the  latter,  whose  messengers  they  were 
strictly  considered  to  be.  They  were  imagined  to 
be  feminine  beings,  who,  mostly  as  protective,  but 
sometimes  as  persecuting,  spirits,  attended  the 
single  individual  or  whole  races,  throughout"  this 
earthly  life.  They  revealed  themselves  on  import- 
ant occasions,  sometimes  to  the  waking  eye,  some- 
times in  dreams,  and  in  the  latter  case  they  were 
also  called  Dream-wives  (Draumkonur). 

When  the  Icelandic  chieftain  Thorstein    Inge- 


180  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

miindsson,  of  Hof,  in  Yatnsdal,  was*»invitecl  as  a 
guest  of  Groa,  a  magic-skilled  woman  who  dwelt  in 
his  neighborhood,  lie  dreamed  for  three  successive 
nights  before  the  festival,  "  that  the  woman  who 
had  been  the  attendant  of  him  and  his  family " 
showed  herself  unto  him  and  forbade  him  to  go 
thither.  He  obeyed,  and  staid  at  liome  with  his 
friends.  But  on  the  very  day  that  the  festival  was 
to  have  been,  Groa's  house  was  buried  beneath  a 
mountain  slide,  which  was  called  forth  b}^  her  sor- 
cery.* 

The  renowned  and  mighty  Icelander,  Yiga-GUim, 
dreamed  one  night  that  he  stood  on  his  estate 
Thvera,  and  saw  a  woman  coming  toward  him,  who 
was  so  large  that  her  shoulders  reached  the  moun- 
tain-tops upon  both  sides  of  the  valley.  He  inter- 
preted this  dream  to  signify  that  his  uncle,  the 
ISTorwegian  hersir  Vigfus,  was  now  dead,  and  the 
woman  was  his  Good  Fortune  (hamingja),  which 
was  higher  than  the  mountains,  and  which  now 
took  up  its  abode  with  Glum.f 

When  Ilallfred  Yandrre5askald  lay  deathly  sick 
in  his  ship,  a  woman  was  seen  to  walk  along  with 
it.  She  was  of  a  goodly  aspect  and  was  clad  in 
armor;  she  walked  over  the  waves  as  though  it 
had  been  upon  firm  land.  Hallfred  looked  upon 
her  and  saw  that  it  was  his  Fylgja-kona  (Guardian 
Spirit),  but  as  he  had  embraced  Christianity,  he 
was  anxious  she  should  not  accompany  him  in  the 
realms  of  death,  and  he  said  to  her,  "  I  now  declare 

*  Vatnsd.  S.,  36. 
f  Viga-Gl.  S.,  9. 


INFERIOR  DEITIES  AS  OBJECTS  OF  WORSHIP.        181 

myself  to  be  separated  from  thee  ! "  ''  Wilt  tliou 
accept  me  ?  "  slie  asked  of  Tliorvald,  Ilallfred's  bro- 
ther, lie  answered  in  the  negative.  Then  said 
Ilallfred  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  skald,  "  I  will 
accept  thee !  ""^' 

It  is  said,  however,  of  the  hopeful  Icelandic  youth 
Thi5randi  Hallsson,  that  he  was  slain  by  the  Disir  of 
his  family.  It  was  shortly  after  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Iceland,  that  Thi5randi's  father 
Hall,  on  a  winter  night,  gave  a  banquet  (no  doubt 
a  sacrificial  banquet  in  honor  of  the  Disir)  at  his 
estate  of  Hof,  on  Alpta-fjor5.  The  soothsayer  Thor- 
lialli,  who  was  among  the  guests,  forbade  any  one 
to  go  out  at  night ;  for  whoever  did  so  would  bring 
about  some  mishap.  "When  all  had  gone  to  bed 
there  were  three  raps  upon  the  door,  but  no  one 
heeded  it,  except  Thi5randi,  who  lay  nearest  to  the 
door.  He,  believing  it  ,to  be  guests  who  had  arriv- 
ed, sprang  wp  with  the  third  rap  and  went  out  with 
his  sword  in  hand.  As  he  perceived  nothing  at  first, 
he  went  a  little  way  from  the  door;  but  now  he 
heard  the  trampling  of  horses'  feet,  and  saw  nine 
women  in  black  ride  from  the  Xorth,  bearing  drawn 
swords,  and  nine  women  in  light  clothing,  upon 
white  horses,  ride  across  the  fields  from  the  South. 
He  now  wished  to  go  in  ;  but  the  women  in  black 
came  in  his  way  and  attacked  him.  He  defended 
himself  bravely,  but  fell  at  last.  Some  time  after- 
ward his  father  awoke  and  missed  him.  They 
sought  Thi5randi,  and  soon  found  him  lying  sorely 

«  Magnusen's  Eddalare.  Vol.  IV.  p>  45  :  (from  Hallfred's  Saga). 
9 


182  RELIGION    OF   TIJE   NORTHMEN. 

wounded.  ITe  related  his  vision,  and  died  in  the 
morning.  The  wise  Thorhalli  explained  this  whole 
occurrence  to  be  a  warning  of  a  change  of  Faith. 
The  women  had  been  the  Disir  of  his  family ;  those 
in  black  had  favored  the  ancient  faith,  which  was 
now  soon  to  be  forsaken.  They  had  wished  to  ob- 
tain a  tribute  from  the  family  before  they  left  it, 
therefore  had  they  slain  Thi5randi,  whom  the  light 
Disir  had  sought  in  vain  to  defend.  But  these  same 
light  Disir  were  to  protect  the  race,  when  they 
should  have  accepted  the  new  faith.- 

The  Icelander  Gisli  Sursson  related  of  himself, 
that  he  had  two  Draum-konur ;  the  one  was  ever 
friendly  toward  him,  the  other  always  foretold  him 
evil.  When  he  roved  about  outlawed  and  unfor- 
tunate, the  latter  made  her  appearance  the  oftenest, 
and  would  sprinkle  him  with  blood ;  but  occasion- 
ally the  former  consoled  him,  and  once  she  showed 
him  his  place  of  abode,  where  she  i>romised  him  a 
happy  sojourn  after  death.f 

When  a  person's  good  fortune  was  on  the  wane, 
it  was  ascribed  to  the  anger  or  imbecility  of  his 
Disir  ;  and  then  it  was  also  said  that  his  Disir  were 
dead  or  had  forsaken  him.  In  Half's  Saga,  in  the 
poetic  altercation  between  Halfs  champion  Ut- 
steinn  and  the  Dane,  Ulf  the  Red,  tlie  former  says  : 

*'  Up  should  we  rise, 
Forth  should  we  go, 
And  loudly  make 
Our  shields  resound ; 

*  01.  Tr.  S.  in.  Fornm.  S.  215. 
f  Gisli  Surs.  S.  22,  24,  30,  33. 


INFERIOR  DEITIES   AS   OBJl^CTS   OF  WORSHIP.      183 

I  trust  that  our  Disir, 
Helmet-covered, 
Hither  have  come 
To  Denmark." 

To  wliich  Ulf  answers  : 

•*  Dead  may  all 
Your  Disir  be ; 
Fortune  has  fallen 
From  Half's  champions  !  "* 

In  tlie  old  Edclaic  poem,  Grimnismal,  Odin  says  to 
King  GeiiTo5,  just  before  the  latter  falls  by  liis  own 
sword : 

"  I  know  life  is  leaving  thee, 
Un propitious  are  thy  Disir. "f 

In  the  Altamal,  Glaumvor  says  to  her  husband 
Gunnar,  whom,  on  hearing  the  recital  of  his  ill-bod- 
ing dream,  she  vainly  tries  to  dissuade  from  the 
journey  in  which  he  met  with  his  death  : 

*'  I  fear  that  thy  Disir 
Have  all  forsaken  thee !  ":j: 

When  it  occurs  in  the  Sagas  that  a  powerful  man 
gives  his  Good  Luck  (hamingja,  gipta)  to  one  whom 
he  sends  on  a  dangerous  errand,  or  to  whom  he  in 
any  way  wishes  well — an  expression  still  used  in 
Christian  times — the  idea  was  conveyed  originally, 
that  the  Disir  of  the  one,  in  such  cases,  took  the 
other  for  a  time  or  for  ever  under  their  protection. 
When  the  Icelandic  Chieftain  Hoskuld,  on  his  death- 
bed, divided  his  property  among  his  sons,  but  was 
not  able  to  let  his  unmarried  son  Olaf,  whom  he 

*  Hdlfs  S.  15. 

f  The  O.  Edda :   Grimn.  53. 

X  lb. :  Atlam.  25. 


184  RELIGION   O^  THE   NORTHMEN. 

loved  the  most,  share  equally  with  the  otlier  sons 
against  their  will,  he  bestowed  npon  him,  besides  a, 
few  costly  treasures,  his  own  and  his  kinsmen's 
Good  Lnck  (gipta) ;  he  knew  very  well,  he  added, 
that  it  had  already  taken  its  place  with  Olaf.^' 
"When  the  Norwegian  King  01  af  Ilaraldsson  sent 
his  chief  marshal  Bjorn  into  Sweden,  on  a  difficult 
errand,  Bjorn's  companion,  the  Icelander  Iljalti 
Skeggjason,  though  a  Christian,  begged  the  king  to 
bestow  upon  them  his  hamingja  upon  their  journey ; 
and  the  king  replied  that  he  would  do  so  if  it  were 
really  of  any  importance.f 

Tlie  expressions  kynfylgja  (family  attendant)  and 
fettarfylgjur,  which  sometimes  occur  in  the  Sagas  in 
signification  of  the  cleverness  or  power  which  was 
peculiar  to  some  family,:]:  refer  to  the  belief  in  at- 
tendant and  guardian  spirits  as  the  origin  of  the 
predominating  qualities  of  that  family. 

The  belief  in  this  kind  of  Disir  or  protecting  God- 
desses being  so  universal  among  the  heathen  Korth- 
men,  nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  that  they 
should  endeavor  by  worshi|)  to  gain  over  and 
strengthen  the  favor  of  these  beings.  This  was 
doubtless  the  object  of  the  so-called  Disa-blot  or 
Disa  Sacrifices,  which  are  mentioned  in  many  places 
in  the  sagas,  and  which  appear  to  have  been  held 
chiefly  in  autumn  upon  Winter-night.  Of  the  Kings 
Helgi  and  Ilalfdan  of  Sokn,  the  sons  of  Bele,  it  is 
stated,  that  they  were  gone  to  attend  the  Disa-blot  in 

*  Laxdfcla  S.  26. 

t  Snor.:  01.  Ilel.  S.  68. 

t  VolsuDga  S.  4;  JorS.  IIre$.  S.  8. 


INFEEIOR  DEITIES   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.     185 

Baldur's  temple,  when  Frithjof  bronglit  them  the  tri- 
bute from  the  Orkney  Islands  ;  and  as  a  part  of  the 
same  tem'ple  is  mentioned  a  distinct  edifice  under 
the  name  of  Disarsalr — theDisa  Hall  *  Xing  Adils 
of  Upsala  lost  his  life  by  his  horse  stumbling  under 
him,  when  at  a  Disa-blot  he  was  riding  around  in  the 
Disir  hall.f  Alf  hild,  daughter  of  King  Alf  in  Alf- 
heim,  was  carried  off  by  Starka5,  as  she  was  en- 
gaged in  sprinkling  blood  upon  the  altar  one  night  at 
a  o-reat  Disa  sacrifice  which  her  father  held  one 
autumn4  The  Norse  Iving  Eirik  Blood-axe  and  his 
Queen  Gunhilda  held  DIsa-blot  at  a  royal  palace  at 
Atley,  in  western  Norway,§  and  of  the  Norwegian 
hersir  Yigfus  it  is  stated,  that  he  held  great  festivals 
and  Disa  sacrifices  on  Winter-night,  which  solem- 
nities all  his  people  were  to  remember.  || 

There  are  two  beings  which  may  doubtless  be 
reckoned  with  this  class  of  Divinities,  which  are 
often  mentioned  in  our  ancient  Sagas  as  an  object  of 
worship,  although  we  do  not  find  them  named  among 
the  actual  Gods  :  they  are  the  sisters  Thorgerd  Hor- 
gabrud  and  Yrp.  Of  Thorgerd,  who  is  the  oftenest 
named,  it  is  stated  that  she  was  a  daughter  of  King 
Haulgi  (the  Holy),  after  whom  Halogaland  is  said 
to  have  received  its  name.  Both  the  father  and 
daughter  were  worshiped  by  sacrifices,  and  Haul- 
gi's  funeral  mound  was  built  up  of  alternate  layers 

*  Fri5>.  S.  5  and  9. 
f  Snor. :  Yngl.  S.  33. 
X  HervararS.  1. 
§  Egils  S.  44. 
i  Viga-Gl.  S.  6. 


186  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

of  gold  and  silver,  and  of  mold  and  stone.*  This 
account  can  imply  little  else  than  that  Thorgerd  was 
a  Divinity  peculiar  to  the  Ilaleygir,  or  rather,  to  the 
renowned  race  of  IIla5a-Jarls,  from  Ilalogaland 
descended,  and  therefore  was  their  Dis  or  Protect- 
ing Goddess.  She  was  specially  worshiped  by  the 
most  famous  man  of  this  family,  Hakon  Sigurdsson 
Jarl.  It  is  stated  that  during  the  battle  with  the 
Jomsvikingar,  he  sacrificed  to  her  his  little  son  who 
was  but  seven  years  old,  in  order  to  gain  her  helj). 
She  accordingly  made  her  appearance  in  a  raging 
hail-storm  from  the  North,  and  the  enemy  believed 
they  saw  her  and  her  sister  Yrp  upon  the  Jarl's  ship 
amid  the  storm  ;  while  from  every  one  of  their  out- 
stretched fingers  an  arrow  was  flying,  and  each  ar- 
row became  the  death  of  a  man.f  In  Gudbrandsdal 
she  and  Yrp,  together  with  Thor,  were  worshiped 
in  a  temple,  which  Hakon  Jarl  and  the  Chieftain 
Gudbrand  owned  in  fellowship.:}:  In  western  l^or- 
way  she  had  likewise  a  temple  fitted  up  in  the  most 
magnificent  style,  in  which  this  same  Hakon  Jarl 
worshiped  her  with  the  highest  veneration.§  Even 
in  Iceland  Thorgerd  was  worshiped  with  several  of 
the  Gods  in  a  temple  at  Olvus-vatn,  and  was  regard- 
ed as  a  guardian  spirit  of  the  Chieftain  Grimkel 
and  his  family,  who  came  originally  from  Orkadal.j 

*  TheL.  Edda:  Skiilda,  44. 

f  Jomsvikinga  S.  (Copenh.  1824)  Ch.  14  ;  Fornm.  S.  XI.  p.  134  ; 
01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornin.  S.  90. 
X  Niils  S.  89. 
§  Fareyinga  S.  23. 
H  SagaafHur5i,  1,  IS. 


INFEKIOK   DEITIES   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.       187 

Thorgerd's  universal  surname  Horgabru5r,  signifies 
the  Bride  of  tlie  Altar  or  place  of  sacrifice  (from 
liorgr,  altar,  sacrificial  in  closure),  and  has  reference 
to  her  supposed  sanctity.  She  was  also  called  Haul- 
gabru5r,  which  doubtless  denotes  the  Bride  or  God- 
dess of  the  Haley gir. 

The  appellation  Fylgja,  which,  as  already  appears, 
was  synonymous  with  Dis  or  Ilamingja,  was  also 
used,  though  mostly  of  a  kind  of  beings  which  were 
believed  to  attend  on  mankind  under  the  form  of 
animals,  or  rather  to  go  before  them.  These  Fylgjur 
were  imagined  to  be  a  lower  order  of  spirits  than 
the  proper  Disir  or  Ilamingjur,  and  there  are  scarce-- 
ly  any  traces  to  be  found  of  their  having  been' ob- 
jects of  worship.  Every  man  was  believed  to  have 
his  Animal-Fylgia,  and  we  usually  find  that  the  ani- 
mal was  conceived  to  be  in  some  degree  correspond- 
ing with  the  character  or  standing  of  the  man. 
Thus  cunning  folks  were  said  to  have  foxes  for  their 
Fylgjur ;  wild  warriors,  wolves ;  powerful  chieftains, 
eagles,  oxen,  bears,  or  other  strong  animals.*  The 
men  who  had  powerful  Fylgjur  were  more  difficult  to 
be  overcome  and  more  feared  than  those  who  had 
weak  ones.  "The  brothers  have  strong  Fylgjur 
(rammar  fylgjur)  "  said  the  Icelandic  Sorcerer  Tho- 
rolf  concerning  the  sons  of  Ingemund  of  Hof,  when 
he  foresaw  that  they  were  going  to  attack  him.f 
The  veteran  Yifil  said  likewise,  when  it  had  been 
revealed  to  him  in  a  dream  that  King  Fro5i  was 

*  Nidls  S.  23,  61 ;  Vols.  S.  34  ;    Orvar-Odds  S.  4;  f)or8tein  Vi- 
kingssons  S.  12,  &c.,  <fec. 
f  Vatnsd.  S.  30.  , 


188  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

drawing  near  liis  dwelling  to  search  for  liis  nephews 
Hroar  and  Ilelgi,  whom  Yifil  had  concealed  from 
his  attempts:  "Great  and  mighty  Fylgjur  have 
come  hither  to  the  island !  "-  The  wise  Icelander 
Einar  Eyjolfsson  dreamed  that  he  saw  a  noble, 
strong-horned  ox  walking  np  along  Eyja-fjor5  until 
it  came  to  the  estate  MoSnivell,  when  it  went  to 
every  house  and  at  last  to  the  High-seat,  where  it 
fell  down  dead.  Einar  said  that  the  dream  was  sig- 
nificant, and  that  it  was  a  man's  Fylgja  which  bad 
made  its  appearance.  On  the  same  day  his  brother 
Giidmund  the  Mighty  came  home  from  a  jonrney  to 
his  estate  Mo5ruvell,  and  died  suddenly  soon  after 
he  had  seated  himself  in  the  high-seat.f 

The  Ey Igjur  mostly  appeared  in  dreams.  In  the 
Eddaic  poem,  Atla-mal,  where  Kostbera  relates  her 
evil-boding  dream  to  her  husband  Hogni,  she  says 
among  other  things :  "  Methought  there  flew  an 
eagle  through  the  house  ;  it  besprinkled  us  all  with 
blood  ;  it  seemed  by  its  threatening  mien  to  be  the 
guise  of  Atli.":j:  "When  Queen  Au5  related  to  her 
husband,  King  Rorek,  that  she  had  dreamed  of  a 
Stag  which  was  slain  by  a  Dragon,  Eorek  said, 
"  Thou  has  seen  the  Fylgjur  of  Ejngs."§ 

The  Fylgjur  made  their  appearance  more  espe- 
cially as  the  forerunners  of  the  arrival  of  those  to 
whom  they  belonged,  and  a  sudden  irresistible 
drowsiness  was  thought  to  herald  the  approach  of 

*  Saga  Ilrolfs  Kraka,  2. 
•j-  Ljosvetninga  S.  21. 
+  The  0.  Edda:  Atlam.  19. 
§  Sogubrot,  2. 


INFERIOR  DEITIES  AS  OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.      189 

these  beings.  Thus  it  is  stated  of  the  Troll-man.  Svan, 
that  he  yawned  greatly  and  said,  "JSTow  come 
Osvif  s  Fylgjm-,"  (nu  ssekja  at  fylgjnr  Osvifs).* 

Sometimes,  also,  the  Fylgjnr  were  seen  by  per- 
sons in  a  waking  state,  but  it  was  only  by  those  who 
were  gifted  with  a  supernatural  sense.  It  is  related 
of  the  wise  Icelander  ISTial,  that  he  one  night  would 
not  lie  down  to  sleep,  but  walked  out  and  in  contin- 
ually. When  asked  what  was  the  cause  of  this,  he 
answered,  ''Many  things  pass  before  my  eyes;  I 
see  many  grim  Fylgjur  of  Gunnar's  enemies."  In 
the  same  night  his  friend  Gunnar,  of  IIli5arendi  was 
attacked  by  his  enemies. f  Once,  as  the. boy  Thor- 
stein,  who  was  afterwards  called  Ox-foot,  ran  in 
across  the  floor  in  his  foster-parents'  house,  and  fell 
down  there,  a  wise  old  man  named  Geiter,  who  hap- 
pened to  be  present,  began  to  laugh.  The  boy  asked 
him  the  reason,  and  he  answered,  "  I  saw  what 
thou  didst  not  see  ;  a  white  bear's  cub  ran  into  the 
room  before  thee,  and  it  was  over  it  that  thou  fell." 
By  means  of  this  vision  the  Sage  discovered  that 
Thorstein  was  of  a  more  distiuguished  family  than 
was  generally  supposed.:]: 

What  the  Disir  were  for  the  individual  man  or 

*  Nidls  S.  12. 

f  Nidi  var  Jjessa  nott  i  |)6r61fsfelli  ok  mdtti  ekki  sofa,  ok  gekk 
ymist  tit  e5a  inn.  |)6rhilldr  spurSi  Nidi  hvi  hann  ma3tti  ekki  sofa  ? 
"  Margt  berr  nti  fyrir  aiigu  mir,"  sagCi  hann.  "  Ek  se  margar  fyl- 
gjur gi'immligar  tivina  Gunnars,  ok  er  nokkut  undarliga." 

Nidls  S.  TO. 

X  Fornm.S.  Ill,  p.  113,— Concerning  Dfsir  and  Fylgjur  much  ex- 
cellent information  is  given  in  Magnusen's  Eddalajre,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 
35-49. 

9* 


190  RELIGION  OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

family,  were  tlie  Laudvsettir*  believed  to  be  for 
whole  provinces  and  their  inhabitants,  but  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  were  properly  bound  to  the 
place,  and  not  to  the  people,  with  whom  they  were 
connected  only  in-so-far  as  they  were  inhabitants 
of  a  certain  district. 

It  is  most  probable  that  the  heathen  Korthmen 
believed  their  country  to  be  under  the  special  pro- 
tection of  some  one  of  the  ^sir,  probably  of  Thor, 
and  that  it  is  this  Protecting-God  which  the  Skald 
p]gil  Skallagrimsson  means  by  the  Land-As  whose 
hostility  he,  in  a  poem,  calls  down  upon  King  Eirik 
Blood-axe.f  The  Landvgettir,  however,  were  beings 
of  less  importance,  v/lio  protected  the  smaller  dis- 
tricts of  the  country,  and  on  whose  favor  the  pros- 
perity of  the  inhabitants  in  a  great  measure  de- 
pended. Hence  is  derived  a  provision  which  occu- 
pied the  first  place  in  the  heathen  laws  of  Iceland ; 
that  "no  one  shall  have  ships  on  the  sea  bearing 
figure-heads  upon  the  prow ;  but  if  any  one  have 
such,  he  shall  remove  the  heads  before  coming  in 
sight  of  land,  and  not  sail  toward  the  land  with 
gaping  heads  and  out-stretching  snouts,  lest  the  Pro- 
tecting Spirits  of  the  Land  (Landva3ttir)  should  be 
frightened  thereby."  That  a  similar  belief  was  pre- 
valent in  Norway  is  evinced  by  the  proceedings  of 
Egil  Skallagrimsson  when  he  wished  to  avenge  him- 
self on  King  Eirik  Blood- axe  and  Queen  Gunhilda. 
He  went  up,  it  is  stated,  on  an  island  near  the  coast 
of  Norway  and  set  up  a  hazel-stake  in  a  cleft  of  the 

*  Land-guardians,  from  land,  and  vfettr  or  vfett,  a  genius,  spirit, 
f  Egils  S,  58. 


INFERIOR   DEITIES   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.      191 

rocks  facing  the  land,  and  fastened  a  horse's  head 
upon  the  stake.  Therenpon  he  said,  "Here  do  I 
raise  up  a  I^ithing-post"^*  and  turn  the  disgrace 
against  l\jng  Eirik  and  Queen  Gunhilda."  He 
turned  the  head  toward  the  land  and  continued,  "  I 
turn  this  disgrace  against  the  Protecting  Deities  of 
the  Land  which  inhabit  this  country,  so  that  they 
shall  all  run  wildly  about,  without  ever  being  able 
to  find  their  homes,  until  they  have  driven  out  King 
Eirik  and  Queen  Gunhilda  from  the  country."f 
The  enmity  of  the  Landvsettir  was  thus  believed  to 
be  the  cause  of  King  Eirik's  later  misfortunes,  when 
with  his  wife  and  children  he  had  to  fly  from 
Norway. 

On  the  other  hand  it  was  believed  that  the  man 
who  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  Landv^ettir  was  pecu- 
liarly fortunate.  Thus  it  is  related  of  the  Icelander 
Bjorn,  a  son  of  Molda-Gnup,  one  of  the  original 
settlers,  that  he  made  a  covenant  with  a  mountain 
sj)irit  (bergbui)  which  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream, 
and  from  that  hour  Bjorn's  cattle  multiplied  in- 
credibly. It  was  said,  moreover,  that  clairvoyants 
(ofreskir  menu — men  endowed  with  supernatural 
vision,  ghost-seers)  could  see  how  all  the  Guardian 
Deities  of  the  land  accompanied  Bjorn  when  he 

*  Ni5s£aiing,  a  stake  set  up  in  disgrace  of  some  one,  which  it 
was  believed  had  power  to  bring  harm  upon  the  party  it  was 
directed  against.  It  is  probably  derived  from  ni5,  infamy,  dis- 
grace; A.-S.  ni5,  wickedness.  The  term  NiSing,  both  among  the 
Northmen  and  Anglo-Saxons,  conveyed  ideas  of  consummate 
wickedness,  baseness,  and  contemptibleness,  and  was  employed  as 
an  expression  of  the  highest  degree  of  infamy  and  disgrace  that 
could  be  heaped  upon  any  one. 

f  Egils  S.  60. 


192  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

rode  to  the  Assemblies,  and  his  brothers  when  they 
went  out  on  fishing  excursions.* 

The  Landva^ttir  were  believed  to  be  of  various 
forms ;  in  some  places  they  were  great  animals,  in 
others,  again,  they  were  giants.  When  the  Danish 
King  Ilarald  Gormsson  had  the  intention  of  attack- 
ing Iceland,  he  sent  out  beforehand — so  the  account 
goes — a  magic-skilled  man,  who  was  to  explore  the 
country.  The  sorcerer  goes  forth  in  the  form  of  a 
whale,  but  he  finds  every  mountain  and  promontory 
upon  the  island  filled  with  Landvsettir  both  great 
and  small.  When  he  came  to  Yapnafjor5  and  was 
about  to  go  up,  there  met  him  from  the  upper  val- 
ley a  great  Dragon  with  many  snakes  and  toads  in 
its  train,  which  cast  forth  venom  upon  the  sorcerer 
and  forced  him  to  fly.  When  he  came  to  Eyjafjor5 
a  bird  flew  against  him,  which  was  so  large  that 
its  wings  reached  the  mountains  upon  each  side  of 
the  valley,  and  a  crowd  of  large  and  small  birds 
followed  it.  In  Brei5afjor5  he  met  a  great  beast 
which  waded  out  into  the  sea  and  bellowed  dread- 
fully; many  Landvsettir  accompanied  him  also. 
Finally,  at  Eeykjanes  he  saw  a  mountain-giant  with 
an  iron  stafl"  in  his  hand ;  his  head  towered  above 
the  mountain-tops,  and  many  Jotuns  followed  him. 
Intelligence  concerning  the  j^owerful  Guardian 
Spirits  of  this  island  had,  it  seems,  the  eftect  of  de- 
terring King  Ilarald  from  the  intended  invasion  of 
Iceland. f 

It  is  quite  certain  that  in  Norway  and  Iceland 

»  Landnmb.  IV.  12. 
f  Snorri :  01.  Tr.  S.  37. 


INFERIOR  DEITIES   AS   OBJECTS   OF   WORSHIP.     193 

the  Landvsettir  were  most  commonly  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  Jotim  race,  and  as  dwelling  chiefly 
in  the  mountains.  To  regard  the  Jotuns  as  still 
being  in  a  manner  the  actual  owners  of  the  country 
with  reference  to  inanimate  nature,  was  fully  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  dogmas  of  the  Asa-faith;  and 
that,  although  the  Jotuns  on  the  whole  were  recog- 
nized as  evil  beings,  yet  the  people  still  endeavored 
by  a  kind  of  worship  to  make  friends  of  the  few 
within  whose  territory  they  lived,  and  whose  in- 
fluence they  imagined  themselves  to  feel  continual- 
ly— this  was  but  a  natural  consequence  of  the  usual 
conception  which  heathens  form  of  supernatural 
beings  in  general,  and  of  their  influence  on  human 
life. 

The  third  kind  of  inferior  Deities  which  ^the 
heathen  Northmen  worshiped  was  the  Elves  (Alfr, 
a  spirit ;  ;plur.  Alfar).  The  belief  in  them  rests 
wholly  upon  the  Asa  doctrine,  which  represents 
the  Elves  as  the  inhabitants  of  that  region  of  the 
atmosphere  nearest  to  the  Earth's  surface,  and  of 
the  interior  of  the  Earth.  The  former  were  called 
properly,  Light-Elves  (Ljosalfar),  the  latter,  Dark- 
Elves  (Dokkalfar) ; "  but  the  two  classes  were  blend- 
ed together  at  an  early  period  in  the  popular  faith, 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  a  very  general  belief 
that  the  Earthly  Elves  were  neither  black  nor  evil. 
It  was  thought  that  in  their  whole  nature  and  ap- 
pearance they  were  like  men,  and  that  they  had 
their  dwellings  in  mounds.  They  showed  them- 
selves occasionally  and  were  thought  to  have  power 

*  TheL.  Edda:  Gylf.  17. 


194  KELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

to  do  both  good  and  evil  to  the  people  who  lived  in 
their  vicinitj.  Therefore  men  sought  to  gain  their 
friendship  by  sacrifices  (Alfablut)  and  bj  services, 
whenever  the  Elves  might  demand  them. 

"When  the  Icelander  Thorvard  Eysteinsson  had 
been  severelv  wounded  in  a  h61mc;:ano:  with  Kormak 
Augmundsson,  and  his  wound  was  very  difficult  to 
heal,  he  applied  to  a  certain  Thordis  Spakona  fur 
counsel.  She  told  him  tliat  at  a  short  distance 
there  was  a  mound  in  which  the  Elves  lived.  He 
must  get  the  blood  of  the  ox  that  Kormak,  accord- 
ing to  common  usage,  had  slaughtered  as  an  offer- 
ing after  the  duel ;  wdth  this  blood  he  must  sprinkle 
the  mound  and  at  the  same  time  give  the  Elves  a 
banquet  of  the  flesh ;  then  he  should  become 
healed.  Her  advice  was  followed  and  Thorvard 
speedily  recovered  his  health.''^  Sigh  vat,  the  Skald 
of  Olaf  the  Saint,  on  a  journey  through  Gothland, 
stopped  at  a  country  house  to  find  shelter  for  the 
night,  but  the  mistress,  who  was  standing  in  the 
door,  forbade  him,  for  they  were  just  then  engaged 
in  "Alfablot "  or  sacrifices  to  the  Elves.f  In  Hrolf 
Ganger's  Saga,  which  in  reality  is  a  fiction  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  but  which  in  single  fragments 
throws  light  on  the  customs  and  the  modes  of  think- 
ing of  olden  times,  there  are  also  found  traces  of  the 
Elfen-faith.  Once,  when  Hrolf,  the  hero  of  the 
Saga,  has  been  long  in  pursuit  of  a  stag  which  it 
had  been  enjoined  upon  him  to  take,  he  comes 
towards  evening  to  a  clearing  in  the  woods  and  there 

*  Kormaks  S.  22. 

f  JSnorri:  01.  IleL  S.  92. 


INTERIOR  DEITIES   AS   OBJECTS   OF  WORSHIP.      195 

he  sees  a  beautiful  grass-covered  mound.  As  he 
approaches  it,  the  mound  opens  and  an  elderly 
woman  in  a  blue  cloak  steps  out.  She  compassion- 
ates Ilrolf  for  the  vain  labor  he  has  had,  but 
promises  to  procure  him  the  stag,  which  belongs  to 
her,  if  he  will  go  with  her  into  the  mound  and 
assist  her  daughter,  who  has  been  nineteen  days  in 
the  pains  of  child-birtL  and  cannot  be  delivered 
until  she  is  touched  by  a  living  human  being 
(mennskr  ma5r).  Ilrolf  followed  the  Elf-woman 
and  came  into  a  beautiful  apartment.  The  sick 
woman  was  delivered  when  he  touched  her,  and  he 
received  the  stag  in  return,  together  with  a  gold 
ring."^ 

The  Disir  were  often  reckoned  among  the  Elves, 
and  sometimes  also  the  Landvsettir. 

The  Elfen-faith  has  been  kept  up  until  the  present 
time  among  the  people  of  Norway  and  Iceland,  in 
the  belief  in  the  Huldra-folk,  or  rather  Huldu-folk 
(the  concealed,  invisible  Folk),  and  likewise  in  Den- 
mark in  the  belief  in  Elle-folk  (the  Elves  or  Fairies). 

*  Gaungu-Hrolfs  S.  15. 


196  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


IMAGES   OF   THE   GODS. 


The  Northmen,  like  most  other  heathen  nations, 
had  images  of  their  Gods.  The  object  of  these 
images  was  originally  to  make  manifest  to  the 
senses  the  attributes  of  the  Gods,  and  thus  secure 
the  devotion  of  the  less  enlightened  classes.  But  in 
course  of  time,  at  least  with  the  great  mass,  the 
image  became  confounded  with  the  Divinity  by 
whom  it  was  thought  to  be  animated,  and  thus  be- 
came an  object  of  that  worship  properly  due  to  the 
superior  being,  of  which  it  was  only  the  representa- 
tive. Thus  arose  Image-Worship  among  the  North- 
men as  among  so  many  other  nations,  and  became 
a  productive  source  of  the  grossest  superstition. 

However  [rude  we  may  consider  the  Plastic  Art 
to  have  been  among  our  heathen  forefathers,  in 
comparison  with  what  it  was  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  what  it  now  is  among  the  enlightened 
nations  of  Europe,  still  it  was  sufficiently  cultivated 
at  an  early  period,  for  the  purpose  of  making,  out  of 
such  material  as  could  be  obtained,  a  likeness  of  the 
bodily  form  under  which  they  conceived  of  the 
various    Gods.     These    images    it    appears,   were 


IMAGES   OF   THE   GODS.  197 

usually  of  wood,  sometimes  of  metal,  and  but  very 
seldom  of  stone.  They  were  called  go5  (Gods)  or 
skur5go5  (carved  Gods) ;  although  the  latter  term 
may  possibly  be  from  the  Christian  times,  when  the 
effort  was  made  to  cast  all  possible  odium  on  the 
worship  of  idols.  'No  images  have  been  preserved 
which  may  be  regarded  with  certainty  as  relics  of 
the  Asa  worship.  This  is  to  be  attributed  partly  to 
the  zeal  of  the  first  propagators  of  Christianity  in 
destroying  all  idols,  partly  to  the  perishable  material 
of  which  they  were  mostly  made,  and  partly,  no 
doubt,  to  the  lack  of  real  beauty  in  them,  for  when 
the  belief  in  their  sacredness  was  departed,  they 
could  no  longer  inspire  as  mere  works  of  Art.  It  is 
therefore  from  the  old  written  accounts  alone,  and 
especially  from  our  Sagas,  that  we  are  able  to  draw 
any  information  of  the  precise  nature  of  the  idols  of 
our  heathen  forefathers. 

Whenever  these  are  mentioned  they  are  described 
as  being  in  human  likeness,  sometimes  full-sized  and 
sometimes  smaller,  having  the  appearance  and  the 
attributes  corresponding  to  the  presmned  essence  and 
qualities  of  the  God  whom  they  were  intended  to 
represent.  The  large  statues  which  had  their  place 
in  the  temples,  were  often  hung  with  drapery  and 
costly  ornaments,  and  generally  stood  upon  an  ele- 
vation or  pedestal  (stallr  or  hjallr),  which  appears  at 
at  the  same  time  to  have  served  as  an  altar.  Some- 
times also  they  had  images  of  the  Gods  on  the  prow 
of  their  war-ships,  perhaps  as  a  kind  of  figure-head. 
Smaller  images  were  carried  about  their  persons  as 
amulets. 


198  RELIGION   OF  THE  NOETHIVIEN. 

In  the  ancient  temple  at  Upsala,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  Adam  of  Bremen,  there  were  statues 
erected  to  Thor,  Odin  (Wodan),  and  Frey  (Fricco)- 
The  statue  of  Thor  had  the  most  conspicuous  j)lace 
in  the  middle  ;  the  two  others  stood  one  upon  each 
side.  Thor  was  represented  with  a  sceptre  (the 
Hammer,  no  doubt)  in  his  hand ;  Odin,  as  the  God 
of  War,  was  in  armor ;  and  Frey,  in  the  character  of 
the  God  of  Fruitfulness,  was  delineated  as  a  Pria- 
pus.*  In  general,  Odin's  statues  are  not  distinctly 
mentioned  in  the  Sagas,  but  Thor's  very  often.  In 
the  chief-tem]Dle  of  Mseri  in  Inner  Throndheim, 
Thor's  statue  had  the  principal  place.  The  statue 
was  large  and  richly  adorned  with  gold  and  silver. 
The  God  was  represented  sitting  in  a  splendid  car, 
to  which  were  attached  two  goats,  ingeniously 
wrought  of  wood.  Both  the  car  and  the  bucks  stood 
upon  wheels,  and  about  the  horns  of  the  bucks  was 
slung  a  silver  chain,  by  which  the  whole  group  was 
drawn.  It  was  all  so  well  made  that  it  awakened 
the  astonishment  of  King  Olaf  Tryggvason  when  he 
entered  the  temple.f 

In  a  temple  at  Hundsthorp  in  Gudbrandsdal  stood 
a  large,  much-honored  statue  of  Thor.  It  was  of 
wood,  hollow  within,  and  in  the  likeness  of  a  man. 
It  was  adorned  with  gold  and  silver,  held  a  hammer 
in  its  hand,  and  stood  upon  an  elevation  (lijallr). 
The  peasants  led  this  statue  forth  with  great  solem- 
nity to  meet  Olaf  the  Saint  when  he  came  into  Gud- 
brandsdal to  convert  them  to  Christianity ;  but  St. 


*  Ad.  Brem.  :  de  situ  Dauia^,  cap.  233. 
t  .01.  Tr.  S.  Skalh.  II.,  24. 


IMAGES   OF  THE   GODS.  199 

Olaf  caused  one  of  his  men  to  break  it  in  pieces.* 
A  wooden  statue  of  Tlior  stood  among  several  idols, 
all  upon  elevations  (stallar),  in  a  temple  in  Thrond- 
heim  owned  by  a  ricli  landsman,  Finn.f  In  the 
temple  in  Gudbrandsdal,  which  Ilakon  Jarl  and 
Dala-Gudbrand  owned  together,  Thor  was  repre- 
sented upon  a  car  and  adorned  with  gold  rings.  At 
the  same  j)lace  was  also  the  statue  of  Hakon's  tute- 
lary Goddess,  Thorgerd  Horgabru5,  in  a  sitting  pos- 
ture, as  large  as  a  full  grown  person,  with  n>falld  (a 
kind  of  head-dress)  upon  her  head  and  a  gold  ring 
upon  her  arm.  The  statue  of  Yrp  was  also  there 
and  had  likewise  gold  rings  upon  its  arms.:}:  In  an- 
other temple  owned  by  Hakon  Jarl,  the  statue  of 
Tliorgerd  stood  upon  a  stallr ;  it  was  splendidly 
adorned  and  had  a  gold  ring  upon  its  arm.§  In  the 
temple  at  Baldur's-haug  in  Sokn,  there  is  said  to 
have  been  many  idols,  among  which  the  statue  of 
Baldur.is  expressly  mentioned.!  Many  idols  are 
also  mentioned  as  being  in  a  temple  at  Olvusvatn  in 
Iceland.^  In  another  temple  on  the  island  belong- 
ing to  a  certain  Bersi,  sat  Frey  and  Thor  in  the 
High-Seat,  and  directly  opposite  them  Friga  and 
Freyja;  these  statues  were  arrayed  in  drapery  and 
ornaments  of  gold  and  silver."^*    Eirik  Hakonsson 

*  Snor.:  01.  Hel.  S.  118,  119;  01.  Hel.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  IV.,  lOT, 
108. 
f  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  202,  203. 
X  Ni^ls.  S.  89. 

§  Fareyinga  S.  23 ;  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  184. 
I  FriS>.  S.  9. 
•[[  HorCs  S.  18. 
**  Droplauga  Sonar  S.  26. 


200  RELIGION  OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

Jarl,  at  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Svoldr,  had 
Thor's  statue  on  the  prow  of  his  ship,  but  he  had  it 
taken  down  afterwards  and  a  crucifix  set  up  in  its 
stead. ^  Tlie  Foster-brothers'  Saga  mentions  a  chair, 
which  had  carved  upon  its  arms  or  side-posts  the 
image  of  Thor  with  his  Hammer.f  A  highly-valued 
wooden  statue  of  Frey  was  found  in  a  temple  in 
Throndheim,  which  King  Olaf  Tryggvason  hewed  in 
pieces  in  the  presence  of  the  people. $  Kjotvi  the 
Rich,  King  of  Ag5ir,  who  fought  against  IJarald 
Harfagri,  had  a  weight  upon  which  the  God  Frey 
was  sculptured  in  silver.  This  treasure,  which  he 
held  in  great  veneration,  fell  after  the  battle  into 
tlie  hands  of  King  Harald,  and  he  presented  it  -to 
his  friend,  the  chieftain  Ingemund  Thorsteinsson, 
who  afterwards  carried  the  image  in  a  purse  and 
held  it  in  very  high  esteem. §  This  last-mentioned 
image  was  probably  borne  as  an  amulet,  as  was 
often  the  case,  no  doubt,  with  the  gold  bracteates 
which  are  found  in  the  burial  mounds  and  in  the 
earth,  having  upon  them  the  images  of  men  and 
animals,  whose  signification  it  is  now  impossible  to 
decide,  and  which  are  furnished  with  a  clasp  for 
fastening  to  a  necklace. 

Images  of  clay  or  dough  in  human  form  are  also 
spoken  of,  which  were  privately  worshiped  even 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  J 

*  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  253,  253. 

I  FostbrreSra  S.  38. 

X  01.  Tr.  S.  Skalh.  II.,  49,  60. 
g  Vatnsd.  S.  9,  10. 

II  "Matblot  eSa  leirblot  gort  i  mannsliki  af  leiri  e5a  af  deigi." 
Auc.  Laws  of  Norw.  I,  p.  383. 


IMAGES   OF   THE   GODS.  201 

How  great  tlie  superstition  of  many  of  tlie  North- 
men was  in  regard  to  the  idols,  is  attested  hj  many 
passages  in  the  Sagas,  although  it  must  be  confessed 
that  the  superstition  and  blind  zeal  of  tlie  first  Chris- 
tian teachers  gave  rise  to  divers  extravagances  in 
these  accounts.  The  peasants  placed  food  every  day 
before  a  statue  of  Thor  in  Gudbrandsdal,  and  be- 
lieved that  the  God  consumed  it.^     Of  Thorgerd 
Horgabru5's  statue  it  is  related  that  it  made  known 
to  Hakon  Jarl  the  Goddess's  delight  in  his  offerings, 
by  bending  down  its  arm  so  that  he  was  enabled  to 
draw  off  the  only  gold  ring  which  adorned  it.f     A 
statue  of  Thor  at  Eau5sey  in  Xaumdal,  is  described 
as  being  so  strengthened  (magnat)  by  offerings,  that 
it  could  speak  with  its  worshiper  Ilau5,  and  accom- 
pany him  about  the  island,  that  it  could  call  forth 
storms  by  blowing  in  its  beard,  and  could  even  play 
at  the  game  of  drawing  hooks  over  a  fire  with  King 
Olaf  Tryggvason.     In  this  sport,  however,  it  came 
off  a  loser,  fell  into  the  fire  and  was  destroyed.^ 
When  Dala-Gudbrand  saw  his  temple  burned  down 
and  the  statues  of  his  Gods  lying  out  upon  the  ground 
unharmed,  he  cried  out,  "  Great  power  is  given  unto 
our  Gods,  that  they  of  themselves  have  gone  out  of 
the  fire  !  "     But  Hakon  Jarl,  who  was  less  blinded, 
said,  "  The  Gods  have  not  done  this  ;  some  person 
has  burned  the  temple  and  carried  out  the  Gods. 
But"  he  continued,  '4he  Gods  do  not  avenge  them- 


*  Snor.;  01.  Hel.  S.  118. 

f  Fareying.  S.  23;  01.  Tr.  S.iii  Fornm.  S.  184. 

X  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  145,  150. 


202  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

selves  suddenly.  May  the  man  who  has  done  this 
be  driven  away  from  Yalhalla  and  never  come 
thither !  "  The  outrage  had  been  committed  by 
Hrapp,  an  Icelander,  who  had  been  for  a  time  a 
guest  with  Gudbrand.*  It  is  related  of  the  Icelander 
Grimkel  that  he  saw  the  statues  of  the  Gods  in  his 
temple  preparing  to  move  away  from  their  seats,  out 
of  displeasure  at  his  son  HorS.f  Of  a  statue  of  Frey, 
in  Sweden,  the  peasants  had  the  belief  that  it  had 
connubial  intercom^se  with  a  woman  who  attended 

it4 

Besides  the  proper  idols  there  was  a  kind  of  sacred 
images,  which  was  found  in  heathen  times  in  the 
house  of  every  Northman,  namely,  the  so-called 
Ondvegis-sulur,  or  Pillars  of  the  High-Seat,  some- 
times also  called  Setstokkar.  These  were  two  high 
wooden  posts  fashioned  by  hewing,  which  stood  one 
upon  each  side  of  the  High-Seat  of  the  Master  of  the 
house,  and  had  the  lower  end  set  in  the  ground. § 
These  Ondvegis-sulur  were  looked  upon  as  peculiarly 
sacred,  it  might  almost  be  said  as  a  kind  of  Household 
Gods.  It  was  a  universal  custom  among  the  North- 
men who  left  their  native  land  to  settle  in  Iceland, 
to  take  with  them  the  Sacred  Columns  from  their 
old  homes,  and  cast  them  overboard  when  they  first 

*  J)d  t6k  GuSbrandr  til  orSa:  "  Mikill  m^ttr  er  gefinn  go^um 
vorum,  er  jjau  hafa  gengit  sjdlf  dr  elldinum !  "  "Eigi  munu  goSin 
J>essu  vallda,"  segir  Jarl ;  •'  maSr  mim  brent  hafa  hofit,  en  borit 
lit  got5in.  En  goS  hefna  eigi  allz  ])egar.  Mun  sk  maSr  braut 
rekinn  tir  VallhoUu  ok   ]>iiY  alldri  koma,   er    }etta.   hefir  gort" 

Nirds  S.  89. 

f  HorSa  S.  18. 

X  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  1^3. 

§  Yatnsd.  S.  15. 


IMAGES   OF   THE   GODS.  203 

came  in  siglit  of  Iceland  ;  then  they  would  select 
their  place  of  residence  on  the  spot  where  the  col- 
umns were  found  drifted  to  land. 

Thus  did  Ingolf,  the  first  Northman  who  settled 
permanently  upon  the  island.*  It  is  related  of  Bjorn 
Ketilsson  from  Sokn,  one  of  the  first  settlers,  that 
wlien  on  his  arrival  he  found  his  sacred  pillars  drift- 
ed into  a  bay,  he  believed  that  a  home  was  shown 
him  there.f  Similar  directions  were  followed  by  his 
sister  Au5  in  choosing  her  abode.:|:  The  settler 
Thord  Ilrappsson  had  been  living  for  ten  or  fifteen 
years  upon  the  eastern  side  of  Iceland  when  he 
learned  that  his  sacred  columns  had  been  cast  upon 
the  western  coast  of  the  island ;  thereupon  he 
straightway  sold  his  estate,  in  order  to  remove 
thither.§  So  also  did  another  of  the  first  settlers, 
Lomund  the  Old,  from  Yors.||  "When  Eirik  the  Red, 
who  went  from  Ja5ar  to  Iceland,  had  loaned  his 
Setstokkar  (Posts  of  Honor)  to  another  Icelander 
named  Thorgest,  and  could  not  get  them  back  again, 
it  gave  occasion  for  a  quarrel,  which  cost  the  lives 
of  many  of  the  adherents  of  both  parties,  and  at  last 
was  the  cause  of  Eirik's  banishment  and  settlement 
in  Greenland. T"  Halstein  Thorolfsson,  who  settled  in 
the  western  part  of  Iceland,  ofi'ered  up  his  son,  and 


*  Landn6mab6k  I,  8. 

f  Laxd.  S.  3. 

X  lb.  5 ;  Kormaks  S.  2. 

§  Landnmb.  I.,  10. 

II  lb.  IV.,  .5. 

^  lb.  II.,  14. 


204  RELIGION   OF   THE   Is^ORTHMEN. 

gave  him  to  Thor  (perhaps  devoted  him  to  his  ser- 
vice), ill  order  that  the  God  should  furnish  him  with 
sacred  columns  of  the  High-Seat ;  whereupon,  so  the 
account  goes,  there  shot  up  on  his  ground  a  tree 
sixty-three  ells  high,  and  two  fathoms  thick,  from 
which  not  only  he,  but  the  whole  surrounding  neigh- 
borhood was  supplied  with  Ondvegis-sulur.* 

It  is  probable  that  the  image  of  some  one  of  the 
Gods  was  often  carved  upon  these  pillars,  and  that 
this  contributed  something  to  the  veneration  in  which 
they  were  held.  It  appears,  at  least,  that  this  was 
the  case  with  the  sacred  columns  which  were  some- 
times to  be  found  in  the  temples.  Thus  we  are  told 
that  Thor's  image  was  carved  upon  one  of  the  Ond- 
vegis-sulur,  which  had  stood  in  a  temple  of  Thor, 
on  the  island  Moster  in  Norway,  and  which  guided 
the  Icelandic  settler  Tliorolf  Mostrarskegg  to  a  place 
of  abode.f 

*  Landnmb.  IL,  23. 
t  %rbyggja  S.  4. 


SACKED   EDIFICES.  2(>5 


CHAPTER    XX. 


SACRED   EDIFICES. 


Of  the  sacred  buildings  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
the  Gods,  two  kinds  are  sjDoken  of  as  being  universal, 
namely,  Horg  and  Hof. 

Ilorg  {hljrgr,  plur.  horgar)  is  the  oftenest  named 
in  the  ancient  poems,  sagas  and  laws,^  but  it  is  not 
particularly  described  ;  it  is  distinguished,  however, 
from  Ilof,  which  was  an  appellation  for  the  proper 
temples.f  The  Ilorgar,  so  far  as  is  known,  were 
a  kind  of  Stone- Altars  or  places  of  sacrifices  under 
the  open  sky  and  surrounded  by  an  inclosure  of 
stones.  They  were  consecrated  to  certain  Deities ; 
sometimes,  perhaps,  when  they  consisted  of  a  single 
stone,  regarded  as  statues  or  rv^presentatives  of  the 
Gods,  and  were  besmeared  with  blood  at  the  (Sacri- 
fices.    Thus  it  is  stated  in  the  Eddaic  poem  Hynd- 

*  Landnmb.  IL,  16;  Orv.  Odds  S.  29;  Older  Gula-].ing  Laws, 
cap.  29. 

t  The  0.  Edda:  VOluspd  7;  Vaf>r.  38;  Ilelgakv.  Pljcirv.  4. 


206  RELIOTON    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

Iulj65,  where  Frejja  is  introduced  speaking  to  her 
favorite  Ottar : 

"  A  Ilorg  he  made  me 
Bnilt  up  of  stone, 
—  Now  is  the  stone 
Changed  into  glass — 
He  sprinkled  it  over 
With  the  fresh  blood  of  oxen ; 
Ottar  trusted  ever 
To  the  Asynjur."* 

Of  Alfhild,  a  king's  daughter,  it  is  said  that  she 
was  carried  off  hy  Starka5  one  night  while  she  was 
sprinkling  the  Horg  with  blood  at  a  sacrifice  to  the 
Disir.f  We  probably  yet  see  the  remains  of  such 
Horgar  in  many  of  the  stone-settings  which  are  found 
in  Norway  and  the  neighboring  countries.  Espe- 
cially is  it  likely  that  the  stone-circles,  which  consist 
of  large  upright  stones,  somewhat  pointed  at  the  top 
and  placed  at  moderate  intervals  from  each  other, 
belonged  to  this  kind  of  sacrificial  places,  and  per- 
haps the  stones  represented  the  statues  of  the  Gods 
there  worshiped.  The  great  simplicity  of  these 
places  of  sacrifice,  warrants  the  presumption  tliat 
they  are  a  more  ancient  arrangement  than  the 
actual  temples. 

The  temples  of  the  heathen  Xorthmcn  were  most 
usually  called  hqf;  they  were  also  called  go5alius 
(House  of  the  Gods)  or  blothus  (House  of  Sacrifice). 
iS"one  of  these  buildings  are  left  standing,  so  fiir  as  is 
known,  not  even  any  ruins  of  them,  which  might 

*  The  O.  Edda:  IIjndlulj65  10. 
f  Hervsrar  S.  1. 


SACRED   EDIFICES.  207 

afford  us  some  idea  of  tlieir  construction ;  for  the 
first  propagators  of  Christianity  were  very  careful  to 
have  every  building  o«  the  kind  destroyed,  or  at 
least  transformed  into  a  Christian  church,  and  under 
the  transformation  the  older  form  was  soon  no  lono-er 
to^  be  recognized.  We  must,  therefore,  be  content 
with  the  ancient  descriptions,  some  of  which,  as  they 
are  found  in  our  Sagas,  are  tolerably  complete. 

When  the  IS^orse  Chieftain  Thorolf  Mostrarskegg 
left  IS'orway  in  order  to  settle  in  Iceland,  he  tore 
down   the  temple   of  Thor  on  the  Island  Moster, 
which  he  had  presided  over,  and  took  with  him 
most  of  the  timber,  together  with  the   earth   be- 
neath the  platform  on  which  Thor's  statue  had  been 
seated.  When  he  had  come  to  Iceland  and  had  there, 
according  to  Thor's  directions—or  rather,  according 
to  the  directions  of  the  Sacred  Columns  upon  which 
Thorns  image  was  carved^— selected   his  place'of 
abode  at  Thorsnes  on  the  southern  side  of  Brei5a- 
fjord,  he  built  on  the  spot  a  large  liof  of  the  same 
timber  and  probably  in  the  same  form  as  the  torn- 
down  temple  of  Moster.     The  door  of  this  temple 
was  in  the  side-wall,  near  one  end;  within  the  door 
stood  the  sacred  columns,  and  in  them  there  were 
nails  which  were   called  reginnaglar  (nails  of  the 
Gods),  but  of  their  meaning  no  information  is  given. 
Within  this  house  there  was  another,  like  the  choir 
ill  Christian  churches,  and  here,  in  the  middle  of  the 
floor,  stood  a  platform  (stallr),  and  an  altar  upon 
which  lay  a  ring  with  the  ends  unjoined  (hringr 

*  See  above,  Chap.  XIX. 


208  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

motlanss)  weighing  two  ounces.  By  this  ring  all 
oatlis  were  taken,  and  the  ruler  was  to  wear  it  upon 
his  arm  at  all  meetings.  On  the  platform  stood  the 
bowl  for  the  sacriticial  blood  (laut-bolli),  in  which 
was  the  laut-teinn,  a  kind  of  sprinkling-rod  with 
which  they  sprinkled  the  laut,  or  blood  of  animals 
sacrificed  to  the  Gods.  Around  about  the  platform 
within  the  smaller  house  (af  husit),  were  placed  the 
statues  of  the  Grods.  Near  at  hand  was  the  Doom- 
ring  (dumhringr),  within  which  human  beings  were 
doomed  to  sacrifice,  and  within  this  ring  stood 
Thor's  Stone,  upon  which  the  victims  were  broken 
when  about  to  be  offered  up.  It  was  believed  that 
traces  of  blood  were  still  visible'  upon  this  stone 
long  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity.* 

The  Icelandic  chieftain  Thorgrim,  a  son  of  the 
Northman  Ilelgi  Bjola,  was  a  great  performer 
of  sacrifices.  On  his  farm-land  (tun)  at  Kjalarnes, 
in  southwestern  Iceland,  he  raised  a  temple  one 
hundred  feet  long  by  sixty  wide,  in  which  Thor  re- 
ceived the  highest  honors.  It  was  built  round  in- 
side like  a  cap  (with  a  vaulted  roof),  and  was  all 
tented  overhead  (liung  with  tapestry).  Thor's  statue 
stood  in  the  middle,  the  other  Gods  upon  both  sides. 
Before  Thor  stood  an  elevated  place  (stallr),  made 
with  great  art,  and  covered  on  the  top  with  iron. 
Upon  this  burned  a  fire  which  was  never  extin- 
guished, called  the  sacred  fire;  there  lay,  also, 
upon  it  a  large  ring  of  silver  which  the  hof-go5i 
was  to  wear  on  his  arm  at  all  meetings,  and  by 
which  all  were  to  swear.    Tliere  was,  besides,  upon 

»  Eyrb.  S.  4, 10 ;  Landnmb.  II.,  12. 


SACKED  EDIFICES.  209 

it  a  large  copper  bowl,  into  which  they  collected  the 
blood  of  the  animals  or  men  that  were  given  to  Tbor. 
This  they  called  laiU  or  lantbolli,  and  out  of  it  the 
^  people  and  cattle  were  to  be  sprinkled.  The  victim 
was  to  be  served  np  at  the  banquet,  but  the  human 
beings  that  were  sacrificed,  were  thrown,  after  being 
killed,  into  a  swampy  pool  near  the  door,  which  was 
called  the  sacrificial  pool  (blot-kcllda).* 

By  the  former  of  these  descriptions,  which  is  un- 
doubtedly very  credible,  it  may  be  seen  that  in  the 
heathen  temples  of  the  ancient  :N'orthmen,  there  was 
sometimes  a  distinction  made  between   the  inner 
Most-Holy,   where   the  statues  of  the  Gods  were 
placed,  and  the  outer  part  of  the  temple,  doubtless 
the  most  spacious  part,  in  which  it  may  be  presumed 
the  sacrificial  banquets  were  held.     It  must,  there- 
fore, have  been  this  last-named  part  of  the  temj^le 
that  is  described  elsewhere  in  the  Sagas  as  being  so 
constructed  as  to  have  fires  burning  along  the  floor, 
with  the  flesh-pots  hanging  over  them  and  with  seats 
upon  each  side  for  the  accommodation  of  the  guests.f 
This  outer  part  of  the  temple  is,  doubtless,  the  same 
building  which  in  other  places  is  called  the  Disar- 
salr.      For  instance,  in  Frithjof 's  Saga  this  is  de- 
scribed as  being  the  highest  among  the  buildings 
of  the  temple  in  Baldur's  grove,  and  constructed  for 
i\iQ  festivals  with  fires  along  the  floor  and  seats  upon 
ihQ  sides.:!:    In  the  Ynglinga  Saga,  the  Disar  hall  of 

*  Kjalnes  8.  2. 

t  Snor. :  H^k.  G65.  S.  16. 

X  Fri$>.  S.  6,  9. 


2l0  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

the  temple  at  Upsala  is  described  as  having  been  so 
large  that  King  Adils  rode  around  inside  of  it.  -  It 
was  necessary,  also,  that  the  building  in  which  all 
the  people  of  a  large  district  were  to  assemble  at  the 
sacrificial  festivals,  should  be  very  capacious.  It  is, 
moreover,  possible  that  this  special  arrangement  was 
peculiar  to  the  public  temples,  v^hich  were  common 
to  the  inhabitants  of  a  whole  district  (fylki)  or  large 
portion  of  the  country,  while  the  smaller  temples, 
which  were  often  to  be  regarded  as  only  the  house- 
chapels  of  private  individuals,  were  constructed  in  a 
dilierent  manner  and  perhaps  more  in  accordance 
with  the  second  of  the  above-mentioned  ones. 

We  also  find  allusions  to  high  board-fences  (ski5- 
gar5ar,  tnod.  Norio.  Skidgaarde)  surrounding  the 
temples,  and  metallic  rings,  which  were  in  the  tem- 
ple doors,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  them 
up.  In  the  door  of  the  temple  of  Hla5i  there  was 
a  ring,  which  was  thought  to  be  of  gold,  but  which 
was  afterwards  discovered  to  be  of  copper  within. 

The  temples  of  Xorway,  as  well  as  all  other  build- 
ings in  that  country  in  the  earliest  times,  were  built 
of  wood  ;  at  least,  we  never  find  any  temple  of  stone 
expressly  mentioned,  nor  is  it  certain  that  the  North- 
men out  of  Norway— in  Sweden,  Denmark,  or  other 
countries — erected  their  temples  of  any  more  dura- 
ble material. 
When  we  find  in  many  places  in  the  Sagas,  that 
'  the  temples,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  are  spoken 
of  as  being  tented  inside  or  hung  with  tapestry, 

*  Snor. :  Ynglinga  S.  33. 


SACRED   EDIFICES.  211 

there  is  nothing  imi^robable  therein,  for  such  deco- 
rations were  much  used  in  the  houses  of  the  IS^orse 
Chieftains  of  antiquity ;  but  when  it  is  said  of  the 
temple  in  which  Ilakon  Jarl  worshiped  Thorgerd 
Horgabrud,  that  it  was  inwardly  adorned  with  in- 
layings  of  gold  and  silver,  and  furnished  with  so 
many  glass  windows  (glar-gluggar),  that  there  was 
nowhere  any  shadow,  it  may  be  received  as  one  of 
the  embellishments  added  to  the  legend  by  a  later 
age.     IS^either  can  we  place  imj^licit  confidence  in 
the  glowing  descriptions  given  of  the   Temple  at 
Upsala,  by  Adam  of  Bremen  and  his  commentator ; 
for  as  the  former  speaks  of  it  being  "  all  decorated 
with  gold  "  (so  must  we  understand  totuyn  ex  auro 
parcUum),  and  t\\Q  latter  tells  of  the  ever-green  tree 
that  grew  by  it,  it  appears  that  through  ignorance 
they  transferred  the  mjths  of  the  "gold-roofed  Val- 
halla" and   tlie    "ever-green   Ash  Yggdrasill "  to 
that  last  celebrated  relic  of  the   heathen   worship 
of  the  Korthmen."^" 

The  temples  were  sometimes  dedicated  to  a  single 
Deity,  but  much  more  frequently  to  several  "of 
them ;  there  is  even  an  account  of  one  in  Gothland 
containing  one  hundred  statues  of  the  Gods  ;t  a 
statement,  however,  which  aj^pears  to  be  exaggerated. 
But  even  when  there  were  many  Gods  worshiped  in 
a  temple,  it  was  mostly  but  one  or  two  that  occupied 
the  first  rank ;  and  it  has  already  been  observed  that 
in  Norway  and  Iceland,  Thor  usually  enjoyed  this 
honor.:]: 

*  Ad.  Brem.:  de  situ  Danue,  133. 
f  Jomsv.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  XL  12. 
X  Chap.XVir. 


212  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

The  temples  were  looked  upon  as  sacred  and 
inviolate ;  no  deed  of  violence  could  be  committed 
with  impunity  within  their  walls,  nor  upon  their 
grounds.  This  sacredness  was  expressed  in  the  an- 
cient language  by  the  name  of  Ye  ;  and  wdiosoever 
violated  it  was  called  "  vargr  i  veum  " — a  wolf  in 
the  sanctuary — and  w^as  declared  an  outlaw  to  all 
persons.  We  find  in  the  Sagas  many  traces  of  the 
veneration  of  the  ancient  Korthmen  fur  their  tem- 
ples. Of  the  great  sanctity  which  rested  upon  the 
temple  in  Baldur's  grove,  in  Sokn,  we  have  before 
spoken.  When  the  Icelander  Ilrapp  had  burned 
the  temple  in  Gudbrandsdal,  which  Hakon  Jarl  and 
Dala-Gu6brand  owned  in  fellowship,  the  Jarl  de- 
clared the  deed  to  be  one  which  should  shut  out  the 
perpetrator  from  Yalhalla.  The  afore-mentioned 
Icelandic  settler  Thorolf  Mostrarskegg,  regarded  as 
sacred  the  w^hole  promontory  of  Thorsnes,  which  re- 
ceived its  name  because  Thor's  image  had  drifte;;!  to 
land  there,  and  because  the  temple  of  Thor  was 
erected  upon  it.  The  ground  should  not  be  defiled 
by  blood  shed  in  anger  (heiptarbl65),  nor  by  any  of 
the  baser  necessities  of  nature  ;  for  the  latter  a  rock 
along  the  coast  was  appointed.  There  was  one  iso- 
lated rocky  hill  upon  the  promontory  which  Tho- 
rolf held  in  special  veneration.  It  was  named  Hel- 
gafell — the  Holy  Eock — and  Thorolf  believed  that 
an  abode  was  prepared  in  it  for  him  and  his  family 
after  death.  It  was  so  very  holy  fliat  no  one  could 
look  upon  it  before  he  had  washed  himself,  and  it  was 
a  place  of  refuge  for  both  man  and  beast.  Thorolf 
established  a  IIera5s-J)ing — a  district  court  of  jus- 


SACRED  EDIFICES.  213 

tice — upon  tlie  extremity  of  the  promontory.  After 
Lis  death,  some  of  those  who  attended  the  court 
would  not  take  the  trouble  to  go  out  upon  the  rocks 
to  attend  to  the  calls  of  nature ;  thereupon  arose  a 
battle  between  those  refi  actory  persons  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Thorsnes.  The  Assembling-place  (f)ing- 
vollr)  became  defiled  with  blood,  and  this  gave  oc- 
casion for  it  to  be  removed  higher  up  the  promon- 
tory, for  the  ground  upon  which  it  had  been  could 
not  now  be  considered  holier  than  any  other. ^ 
When  the  Norse  chieftain  Thorhadd  the  Old,  who 
had  been  hofgo5i  at  Maeri  in  Throndheim,  went  over 
to  Iceland,  he  took  down  the  temple  beforehand  and 
carried  with  him  the  hof-mold  (mold  or  earth  under 
the  foundations  of  the  temple)  together  with  the 
sacred  columns.  He  settled  on  Sto5var-fjur5,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Iceland,  whither  he  transferred 
the  sacredness  of  M^eri  (Mierina  helgi)  to  the  whole 
rjor5.  He  allowed  no  living  being  to  be  killed 
there,  except  the  cattle  that  he  required  to  be 
slaughtered  for  his  household. f 

It  was  not  lawful  to  bear  arms  into  the  tem- 
ples. When  King  Olaf  Tryggvason  went  into  the 
temple  at  Mieri,  it  is  related  that  those  of  his  men 
and  the  countrymen  who  followed  him  were  unarm- 
ed ;  the  king  himself  had  only  a  gold-mounted  staff 
or  mace  in  his  hand.:]:  The  Xorthman  Ilrafn  had 
to  give  up  to  the  Icelandic  chieftain  and  hof-go6i 
Ingemund  a  splendid  sword  in  forfeiture,  because 

*  Eyrb.  S.  4,  9,  10. 
f  Landumb.  IV.  6. 
i  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  II.  167. 
10* 


214  RELIGION   OP  THE   NORTHMEN. 

he  had,  while  absorbed  in  conversation  with  the 
chieftain,  heedlessly  entered  with  his  sword  in  hand 
into  the  temple  in  Yatnsdal,  which  the  latter  pre- 
sided over.  "  It  is  not  the  custom,"  said  Ingemund  to 
him,  "  to  bear  arms  into  the  temple,  and  thou  wilt 
be  exposed  to  the  wrath  of  the  Gods  if  thou  do  not 
make  atonement."  It  .would  be  safest,  he  added, 
f<n-  Ilrafn  to  give  him  the  sword,  and  thus  enable 
him  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  Gods.''^ 

The  temples  were  supported  partly  by  the  income 
of  landed  proj)erty  which  was  bestowed  upon  them, 
and  partly  by  tlie  so-called  temj^le-tax  (hoftollr),  a 
contribution  which  had  to  be  paid  by  all  who  fre- 
quented a  particular  temple.  Of  the  first-mentioned 
kind  the  so-called  Uppsala-au5r  (Upsala  property), 
in  Sweden,  appears  to  have  been.  It  was  posses- 
sions belonging  to  the  temple  at  ITpsala,  and  its 
directors  were  the  kings  of  that  place. f  Similar 
Temple-lands  are  spoken  of  in  Iceland  ;  for  instance, 
it  is  related  of  the  go5i  Jorund  Hrafnsson,  who 
erected  a  temple  on  his  estate  Svertingstad  in  the 
East  Fjor5ung  of  Iceland,  that  he  approj^riated  to 
himself  a  large  tract  of  unoccupied  land  and  bestowed 
it  on  the  temple.:}:  The  temple-tax  or  contribution 
was  universal  in  Iceland,  as  in  all  probability  it  was 
also  in  Xorway,  and  is  similar  to  the  Tithes,  which 
in  Christian  times  have  been  paid  to  the  Church. 
The  superintendent  of  the  temple — hof-go5i  or  hof- 
gy5ia — received  the  contribution  and  made  use  of  it 

*  Vatnsd.  S.  IG. 

f  Snor.:  Yngl.  S.,  12;  compare  AvitU  01.  IIol.  1^,  '70, 

X  Landnmb.  V.  3. 


SACRED   EDIFICES.  215 

together  with  the  temple  possessions,  but  in  return 
]iad  to  take  charge  of  the  temple  and  keep  it  in 
repair. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  many  temples  in  ]N"or\vay, 
even  chief-temples,  which  were  attended  by  the 
whole  population  of  a  F3dki  or  Province,  were  ac- 
tually the  private  j^roperty  of  certain  chieftains  who 
had  erected  them  in  the  first  place  and  presided 
over  them,  and  in  w^hose  f^imily  this  supremacy  or 
^priesthood  afterward  became  hereditary.  It  thus 
becomes  explicable  how  such  chieftains  could  have 
authority  to  tear  down  temples  and  take  them  along 
when  they  left  the  country,  as  we  have  above  seen 
was  the  case  both  with  the  temple  of  Ma?ri  in 
Throndheim,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  Chief- 
Temple  of  the  inhabitants  of  Inner-Tlirondheim,  and 
Avith  the  temple  on  Moster.^ 

*  Landnmb.  IV.,  6;  Eyrb.  S.  3. 


216  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 


CIIAPTEE  XXL 


THE   DIVINE   SERVICE   OF   THE   HEATHENS. 

Sacrifices,  or,  in  the  old  JS^orse  language,  blot, 
were  considered  by  the  beatlien  Xortlimen  to  be  the 
most  efficacious  means  of  gaining  favor  with  the 
Gods  and  averting  their  wrath.  These  offerings 
were  usually  bloody,  and  consisted  in  the  killing  or 
butchering  of  living  creatures  under  the  observance 
of  certain  solemn  ceremonies ;  but  the  character  of 
them  is  not  more  fully  described  in  the  ancient 
accounts.  The  animals  most  generally  offered  at  the 
larger  public  sacrificial  festivals  were  oxen,  horses, 
sheep  and  swine.  The  victims  were  fattened  before- 
hand, in  order  that  they  miglit  attain  a  very  large 
size  and  make  a  good  appearance.  Tliey  were 
slaughtered  by  the  go5i  or  Chief  Director  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  generally,  as  it  appears,  before  the  images 
of  the  Gods.  The  blood,  which  was  called  laxity  was 
collected  in  a  bowl  called  laut-bolli ;  the  latter  was 
usually  of  copper  and  had  its  place  in  the  temple 
upon  the  High- Altar,  lly  the  aid  of  sprinkling- 
rods — the  so-called  laut-teinar — the  altars  and  walls 
of  the  temple  were  besmeared  (rj65a)  with  this  laut 


THE  DIVINE   SERVICE   OF  THE   HEATHENS.         217 

or  sacrificial  blood,  as  it  was  also  sprinkled  (stokkva) 
over  the  multitude  assembled  at  tlie  sacrifice.  The 
statues  of  the  Gods,  which,  as  before  observed, 
were  mostly  of  wood,  were  smeared  with  the  fat  of 
the  victims,  rubbed  with  cloth,  and  baked  by  the 
fires  burning  along  the  temple-floor.  Tliis  function, 
we  find,  was  performed  by  the  women  assembled  at 
the  festival. 

The  public  sacrifices  were  in  connection  with 
solemn  festivals  (blotveizlur,  sing,  blotveizla,  per- 
haps also  gildi).  In  some  places  these  were  at  the 
expense  of  the  Chief  Director  of  the  temple,  who  in 
return  had  the  use  of  the  Temple-possessions,  and  re- 
ceived the  Temple-tribute  or  hof-toll.  This  appears 
to  have  been  universal  in  Iceland,  wliere  the  tem- 
ples were  usually  the  private  property  of  the  go5ar 
or  priests.  In  other  j^laces,  however,  and  it  appears 
to  have  been  universal  in  ^N'orway,  the  expenses  of 
tlie  sacrificial  feasts  were  defrayed  by  contributions 
from  the  people  who  attended  a  particular  temple, 
who  for  that  purpose  brought  afe  and  all  kinds  of 
provisions  to  the  festival ;  though  it  also  happened 
sometimes  that  some  rich  and  powerful  chieftain, 
who  was  at  the  same  time  superintendent  of  a  tem- 
ple, undertook  alone  to  bear  the  expenses  of  a  sacri- 
ficial banquet,  in  which  case  his  liberality  was,  of 
course,  highly  praised.  In  JSTorway,  it  appears  that 
after  Ilarald  Ilarfagri's  time  the  cliief  direction  of 
all  public  sacrifices  and  the  feasts  connected  with 
them  devolved  upon  the  king ;  he,  therefore,  occu- 
pied the  higli-seat  at  the  sacrificial  guilds,  when  he 
was  present  at  them  ;  otherwise  some  chieftain  pre- 


218  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

sided  over  them  in  liis  behalf.  Sometimes  tlie  mau- 
ai::ement  of  the  sacrificial  feasts  of  a  Fvlki  or  a  larcrer 

o  I/O 

district  passed  around  by  turns  among  a  certain 
number  (twelve)  of  the  chosen  men  of  the  district ; 
but  this  was  j^erhaps  an  exception  to  the  general 
custom,  and  was  first  adopted  when  the  kings  and 
their  men  had  fallen  ofif  from  tlie  Asa-faith  and  em- 
braced Christianity.  The  ancient  custom  in  the 
time  of  the  Fylki  governments  was,  doubtless,  thus  : 
that  the  hersir,  in  the  character  of  go5i,  conducted 
the  public  sacrificial  feasts  in  his  hera5  or  district, 
or  where  several  hera5  or  eyen  fylki  joined  together 
in  a  sacrifice,  then  all  the  hersar  present  acted,  but 
in  such  a  maimer  that  the  one  in  whose  temple  the 
feast  was  held  presided.  If  a  King  or  Jaii  was 
present,  the  post  of  honor  was,  of  course,  always  con- 
ceded to  him  ;  but  they  could  hardly  be  called  the 
actual  conductors  of  sacrifices ;  at  least,  their  I^ing- 
ship  or  Jarlship  originated  in  a  higher  than  priestly 
dignity.  Such  was  certainly  the  case  in  many  places 
in  Norway,  hs  it  is  known  to  have  been  with  the  Up- 
sala  Kings  in  Sweden. 

The  sacrificial  feast  followed  after  the  sacrifice. 
The  flesh  of  the  sacrific(^  animals,  including  that  of 
the  horses,  was  now  boiled  in  large  pots  whicli  hung 
over  the  fires  along  the  temple-floor,  and  was  after- 
wards devoured  by  the  assembled  guests,  who,  as  at 
other  bancpiets,  sat  along  the  side-walls  of  the  house 
on  both  sides  of  the  fire.  The  fidl  drinkinir-liorns 
{full)  were  now  borne  around  or  between  the  fires 
(of  elda),  probably  as  a  kind  of  jmrification,  and  the 
conductor  of  the  sacrifice  consecrated  (yigja)  tlieiu, 


THE   DIVINE   SERVICE   OF  THE   HEATHENS.        219 

as  well  as  all  the  sacrificial  food  (blot  matr).  TLey 
first  ciranlv  Odin's  Lorn — or  those  who  trusted  in 
their  own  strength  and  energy  drank  a  horn  to  Thor 
■ — next  XjorS's  horn,  arid  Frey's  horn  for  prosperous 
seasons  and  for  peace.  Then  many  were  accus- 
tomed to  drink  Bragi's  horn,  by  which  solemn  vows 
Avere  made ;  and  finally,  a  horn  to  the  memoiy  of 
good  kinsmen  departed.  All  these  solemn  toasts 
were  called  Qninni  or  memorial  horns,  and  were 
called  out  by  the  conductor  of  the  sacrifice,  who 
in  the  ancient  language  was  said  "at  msela  fyrir 
minni "  "  to  call  out  the  memorial  toasts." 

The  public  sacrifices  thus  consisted  of  two  import- 
ant performances:  first,  the  butchering  (hogg,  at 
hoggva)  and  the  blood-sprinkling  (at  rj65a,  stokkva) 
connected  with  it,  all  which  it  seems  took  place  dur- 
ing the  first  night  of  the  festival;  and  secondly, 
the  sacrificial  feast,  at  which  the  consecrated  horns 
were  the  principal  aflair,  and  during  which  the 
anointing  of  the  idols  ai3pears  to  have  been  attended 
to. 

Three  times  during  the  year  they  held  great  sacri- 
ficial festivals,  at  which  the  inhabitants  of  larger  or 
smaller  portions  of  the  country  assembled  together 
at  one  common  chief-temple.  The  first  of  these  fes- 
tivals was  held  on  Winter-nighty  at  the  beginning 
of  Gor-mana5r,  or,  by  our  reckoning,  about  the  mid- 
dle of' October,— the  14th  of  that  month  being  still 
called  Winter-night  in  Xorway,  and  reckoned  the 
beginning  of  winter.  This  festival  was  called 
"  vetrnatta  blot "  or  "  blot  imoti  vetri,"  i.  e.,  Wintcr- 
nujMs  Sacrifice^  or.  Sacrifice  toioard  Winter;  ancl 


220  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

they  were  then  said  to  welcome  winter — (at  fagna 
vetri).  They  sacrificed  at  that  time  for  a  good  year 
(til  ars),  wliicli  in  Norway  meant  in  reality  a  good 
winter,  that  being  then,  as  now,  a  matter  of  very 
great  importance  for  that  country." 

The  second  great  sacrificial  festival  was  held  on 
Mid-winter  (mi5r  vetr),  i.  e.^  at  the  beginning  of 
the  |)orra-mana5r  (Tlior's  month)  of  the  ancients,  or, 
according  to  our  reckoning,  in  the  middle  of  Janu- 
ary. The  12th  of  January  is  still  called  Mitvet  by 
the  Northmen.  This  sacrifice  was  usually  called 
mi5svetrar  blot,  i.  e.^  Midwinter's  Sacrifice,  or  J61, 
jolablot,  i.  e.^  Yule ;  sometimes  also  J)orra-bl6t,  from 
the  month  in  which  it  w^as  solemnized.  It  began  on 
Midwinter-niglii  (mi5svetrar-natt),  which,  by  reason 
of  tlie  great  sacrificial  slaughter  then  performed, 
was  named  hoggu-natt,  the  Hewing  or  Butchering 
Kiglit,  and  it  lasted  three  days,  or,  according  to 
the  ancient  mode  of  expression,  three  nights.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  most  solemn  sacrificial  fes- 
tival of  the  Northmen,  and  they  then  sacrificed  for 
Peace  and  a  productive  Season  (til  ars  ok  fri5ar). 
On  Yule-eve  it  was  the  custom  to  lead  out  a  boar 
consecrated  to  Frcy,  which  was  called  the  Atone- 
ment-Boar (sonar-goltr) ;  upon  this  the  persons  pres- 
ent laid  their  hands  and  made  solemn  oaths  (heit- 
strengingar).  This  circumstance,  as  well  as  the  fact 
that  the  Yule-sacrifice  was  made  for  Peace  and 
Fruitfulness,  makes  it  highly  probable  that  the  fes- 
tival was  chicfiy  in  honor  of  Frey.f 

*  Snor. :  Yngl.  S.  8;  lb.  01.  nd.  S.  115. 

f  Concerning  Yule  (J61)  see  Snorri:  Ynglinga  Saga,  S;    Hdk- 
G65.   Saga.  15   and    10;    Olaf  Hel.   Saga,   114  and   115,  and  01* 


THE    DIVINE   SEEVIC]^  OF   THE   HEATHENS.         221 

The  third  great  sacrificial  festival  was  held  at  the 
beginning  of  Summer,  probably  on  Summer's-day, 
which,  according  to  both  the  ancient  and  the  modern 
Calendar  of  the  Northmen,  falls  on  the  middle  of 
April.  This  festival  was  called  blot  at  sumri — Sac- 
rifice toward  Summer^  or  Sigr-blot — Sacrifice  for 
Victory^  a  name  which  it  received  because  they 
then  sacrificed  for  victory  and  success  in  the  mili- 
tary and  Yiking- expeditions  which  they  might 
undertake  in  the  approaching  summer*  It  is, 
therefore,  probable  that  this  festival  was  specially 
in  honor  of  Odin. 

Some  have  also  supposed  that  a  great  sacrificial 
festival  was  held  at  Mid-summer-time,t  but  there 
is  scarcely  sufficient  ground  in  the  ancient  sagas  for 
this  assumption.  It  is  true  that  Snorri  speaks  in  a 
single  place  of  a  mi5sumars-bl6t,  but  this  is  evidently 
a  confusion  in  the  account,  and  it  is  properly  a  Mid- 
winter sacrifice,  and  not  a  Mid-summer  one  that  is 
alluded  to. 

The  heathen  Northmen  had  many  smaller  sacri- 
ficial feasts,  beside  the  three  great  ones  above  cited, 
but  to  pretend  to  decide  upon  the  times  when  they 

Tryggv.  Saga  in  Fornra.  Sogur,  162,  165,  166;  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  Yule  and  the  Mid-winter  Sacrifice  were  the  same  fes- 
tival, and  that  the  heathen  Yule  was  held  in  January,  therefore 
later  than  the  Christian  festival.  Yule  is  doubtless  the  same  fes- 
tival that  Procopius  says  the  Thulites  (Northmen)  celebrated  on 
the  return  of  the  sud,  after  it  had  been,  at  midwinter's  time,  forty 
days  below  the  horizon.     Proc.  de  Bell.  Got.  lib.  II.  cap.  15. 

*  Snor. :  Yngl.  S.  8,  01.  Hel.  S.  115. 

f  Magnusen:  Specimen  Calendar'd  Gentilisin  the  3d  part  of  the 
Arna-Magnsean  edition  of  the  0.  Edda,  p.  1086,  ^t  al. 


222  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

were  held,  leads  only  into  a  multiplicity  of  conjec- 
tures, which  are  wholly  without  foundation.^" 

Human  sacrifices  (manna-blut)  were  not  unusual, 
although  it  was  generally  bondsmen  and  malefac- 
tors that  were  offered  up.     The  sacrifice  of  human 
beings  was  performed  either  by  butchering  them 
like  other  victims,  collecting  the  blood  in  the  sacri- 
ficial bowls,  and  afterward  sinking  the  corpse  into 
a  j)ool  or  morass ;  or  by  breaking  the  victim's  back 
over  a  sharp  rock;  or  finally  by  hurling  it  out  over 
a  precipice  among  the  rocks  of  an  abyss.      Only  on 
rare  and  very  important  occasions  were  the  free- 
born  sacrificed  to  the  Gods;  and  yet  there  were 
instances  when  the  victims  were  chieftains  or  their 
children.     Thus  it  is  related  of  the  Upsala  King 
Ann  that  he  sacrificed  his  nine  sons  tu  Odin  for  the 
sake  of  prolonging  his  life.f     King  Olaf  Tretelgja 
of  Yermaland  was  burned  to  death  by  his  subjects, 
and  sacrificed  thus  to  Odin  in  order  that  a  great 
famine  should   cease.:]:     Of  the   zealous   Asa-wor- 
shiper Ilakon  Jarl  it  is  stated,  that  during  the  battle 
in  lljorunga  bay  with  the  Jomsvikingar  he  sacrificed 
his  son  Eiiing,  then  seven  years  old,  to  Thorgerd 
IIorgabru5,  and  caused  his  bondman  Skopta  Kark 
to  kill  the  boy,  in  the  manner  which  the  J  arl  him- 
self prescribed.§ 

Among  human  sacrifices  may  also  be  reckoned 
the  practice  of  "carving  the   Blood-eagle"  (rista 

*  See  Magnusen :  Spec.  Cal.  Gcntills. 

f  Snor. ;  Yngl.  S.  29. 

X  lb.  47. 

§  JomsYik.  S.  44,  m  Fornm.  S.  XL  p.  135. 


THE   DIVINE   SERVICE   OF  THE   HEATHENS.  223 

bl65orn)  upon  captured  enemies.  It  consisted  in 
cutting  the  ribs  from  the  spinal  cohmm  and  then 
through  the  open  wound  tearing  out  the  kings, 
which,  it  was  said,  they  presented  to  Odin  for 
victory.* 

The  inhuman  custom  which  the  J^orwegian  Yik- 
ings  in  heathendom  had,  of  throwing  up  small  chil- 
dren into  the  air  and  catching  them  again  upon 
their  spear-points  (henda  born  a  spjota  oddum),f  is 
to  be  regarded  perhaps  not  merely  as  an  outburst 
of  the  most  savage  ferocity  of  rude  warriors,  but 
also  as  a  kind  of  human  sacrifice. 

The  conqueror  usually  regarded  all  enemies  slain 
in  battle  as  an  offering  he  had  made  to  Odin,  and 
it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  sometimes,  in 
order  that  the  sacrifice  should  be  still  more  special, 
to  besmear  the  altars  with  the  blood  of  the  first 
chieftains  among  the  slain. 

Two  kinds  of  bloody  self-immolation  are  mention- 
ed in  the  Sagas.  The  one  is  "to, mark  one's-self 
with  the  Spear-point"  (at  marka  sik  geirs-oddi), 
a  custom  by  which  the  Asa  worshiper,  when  dying 
of  sickness,  consecrated  himself  to  Odin.  The 
introduction  of  this  custom  is  attributed  to  Odin 
himself,:!:  but  how  far  it  came  into  general  practice 
is  not  known.  Probably  it  was  intended  to  take 
the  place  of  death  by  arms  upon  the  battle-field, 
and  thus  open  to  the  dying  an  admission  into  the 

*  01.  Tr.  S.  Skalh.  I.  179;  the  0.  Edda:  Sigur5ar-kvi5a  Fafuig- 
bana,  II.  26;  Ragn.  LoSbivS.  18 ;  Noma  Gests  S.  6. 
f  Landnmb.  V.  11 ;  Fri5>.  S.  11. 
X  Snor. :  Yngl.  S.  10, 


224  RELIGION   ON   THE   NORTHMEN. 

ranks  of  the  Einherjar.  Tlie  otlier  kind  of  self-im- 
molation consisted  in  tlie  custom  by  which  any  one, 
who  had  become  old  or  weary  of  life,  leaped  head- 
long from  a  steep  cliff  and  thus  went  hence  to  Odin. 
It  is  mentioned  only  in  King  Gautrek's  Saga.  It  is 
there  related  that  a  family  living  in  a  retired  place 
in  AVest-Gothland  had  a  steep  and  lofty  cliff  (called 
yEtternisstapi,  i.  e..  Family  Rock)  near  their  house, 
from  the  summit  of  which  all  tlie  aged  members  of 
the  family  or  those  who  had  no. prospect  of  support- 
ing themselv^es,  without  becoming  a  burthen  to  the 
others,  precipitated  themselves.  "  Thus  they  died," 
it  is  stated,  "without  any  kind  of  sickness,  and  went 
to  Odin."'^  It  is  true  that  Gautrek's  Saga  is  in  the 
main  a  romance,  yet  there  are  a  few  very  ancient 
and  undoubtedly  genuine  traditions  here  and  there 
interwoven  in  it,  and  among  them  is  the  above 
account,  which  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
fiction. 

There  were  human  Offerings  which  were  not  at- 
tended with  the  death  of  the  victim,  at  least,  not 
immediately.  This  was  when  a  person  either  gave 
himself,  or  was  given  by  his  parents — sometimes, 
even,  before  his  birth — to  one  of  the  Gods,  i.  e.^  was 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  that  God,  perhaps  as 
his  liofgo5i  or  priest.  Thus  it  is  related  of  the 
chieftain  Gu5brand,  from  whom  Gudbrandsdal  re- 
ceived its  name,  that  he  was  given  to  the  Gods  by 
his  father  Raum,  and  his  original  name  Brand  was, 
in   consequence   thereof,   changed   to   GuSbrand.f 

*  Gautreks  S.  1-2  in  FornaKl.  S.  III. 

f  Fundinn  Koreg.  1 ,  in  Fornal J.  S.  II,  p.  6. 


THE   DIVINE    SERVICE    OF   THE    HEATHENS.  225 

Tliorolf  Mostrarskegg  of  Iceland,  the  zealous  wor- 
shiper of  Thor  already  spoken  of,  ''gave  his  son 
Steinn  (from  his  birtli  it  apj^ears)  to  Thor,  his  friend, 
and  called  him  Thorstein."  Of  this  Thorstein,  it  is 
related  that  when  he  had  a  son  who  at  the  heathen 
rite  of  sprinkling  with  water  received  tlie  name  of 
Grim,  "he  gave  him  to  Thor,  destined  liim  to  be  a 
priest  (liofgo5i)  and  called  him  Thorgrim."'^"  The 
Haleygian  Chieftain  Eyvind  Kinnrifa,  a  contempo- 
rary of  King  01  af  Tryggvason,  was  given  to  Odin 
from  his  birth.  When  King  Olaf  had  taken  him 
prisoner  and  could  neither  with  fair  words  nor  with 
threats  prevail  on  him  to  submit  to  be  baptized,  he 
at  last  caused  a  vessel  of  liot  coals  to  be  set  upon 
Eyvind's  stomach,  in  order  that  the  dreadful  torture 
might  compel  him.  But  Eyvind  was  even  then  inflexi- 
ble. At  length,  when  his  body  was  bursted  with 
the  heat,  he  begged  them  to  take  off  the  vessel ;  he 
wished  to  say  a  few  words  before  he  died.  The 
king  asked  again  if  he  would  believe  in  Christ. 
"No!"  answered  he,  "I  cannot  receive  baptism, 
even  though  I  would.  My  father  and  mother  had 
no  children  before  they  applied  to  the  magic- 
skilled  Finns.  The  latter  told  them  that  they 
should  have  a  child,  if  they  would  promise  imder 
oath  this  child  should  serve  Odin  and  Thor  until  the 
day  of  his  death.  They  did  as  the  Finns  advised. 
I  was  born,  and  they  gave  me  to  Odin.  So  soon  as 
I  was  able  to  judge  for  myself  in  anything,  I  renew- 
ed their  vow.  I  have  since  that  time,  in  all  de- 
votednoss,  served  Odin,  and  I  have  become  a 
*  Eyrb.  S.  7  and  11. 


220  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMKN. 

mighty  cliieftain.  ]S[ow  I  have  been  so  many  times 
given  to  Oclin  that  I  neither  can  nor  will  deceive 
him."  With  these  words  upon  his  lips  Eyvind 
died."  When  the  Swedish  King  Eirik  Sigrsreli  (the 
Yictorions)  was  on  the  eve  of  an  important  battle 
with  his  nephew  Styrbjorn,  and  greatly  feared  the 
issue  of  the  contest,  he  went  in  the  night  to  Odin's 
temple  and  gave  himself  to  tlie  God  in  order  to 
obtain  the  victory-^thongh  on  condition  that  he 
should  have  ten  years  longer  to  live.f  It  is  stated 
that  this  same  King  Eirik  died  ten  years  afterwards 
of  sickness  ;t  but  in  general  it  was  certainly  the 
belief  of  the  heathen  Islorthmen  that  they  who  were 
given  or  had  given  themselves  to  Odin  must  die  a  ' 
violent  death,  or  at  least  be  marked  in  their  dying 
liour  with  the  spear-point.  The  Leira-King  llarald 
Hyldatand  and  King  Yikarr  of  H6r5aland,  both  of 
w^hom  had  been  given  to  Odin  from  their  birth, 
ended  their  lives  by  a  violent  death ;  the  former,  as 
it  appears,  by  Odin's  own  hand,  the  latter  by  a 
special  arrangement  of  Odin's. 

Besides  by  tlie  sacrifice  of  living  beings,  it  was 
believed  that  the  favor  of  the  Gods  might  also  be 
gained  by  gifts  (forn)  to  temples  and  idols,  as  well 
as  by  prayers  and  the  vows  (heit)  connected  with 
them.  Thus  it  is  said  of  ILlkon  Jarl,  when  he  wished 
to  obtain  for  Sigmund  Brestersson  the  i)rotection  of 
the  Goddess  Thorgerd  IIorgabru5,  that  he  first  cast 
liimsclf  down  at  the  foot  of  her  statue  and  lay  there 

*  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  204. 

f  Styrbjorn.  J.fittr,  2,  in  Fornm.  S.  T.  p.  2.10. 

i  01.  Tr.  S.  in  Fornm.  S.  I.  \\  Gl. 


THE   DIVINE   SERVICE   OF   THE   HEATHENS.         227 

for  a  long  time.  He  then  arose  and  told  Slgmund 
that  he  was  to  bring  her  an  offering  (lorn)  of  silver 
and  lay  it  upon  the  footstool  before  her.  But  as  the 
statue  would  not  even  then  give  the  desired  token 
of  its  good-will,  the  Jarl  cast  himself  down  before  it 
again  and  .then  shed  tears.  Thereupon  the  statue 
gave  the  desired  token  by  letting  loose  a  gold  ring 
which  it  bore  upon  its  arm,  and  which  the  Jarl 
wished  to  take  from  it  for  Sigmund.*  Before  Thor's 
statue  in  a  temple  at  Hundsthorp  in  Gudbrandsdal, 
the  people  placed  every  day  four  loaves  of  bread 
with  the  due  proportion  of  meat,  and  they  believed 
that  the  God  consumed  the  food,  when  it  was  de- 
voured by  the  vermin  that  found  a  retreat  in  the 
great  hollow  wooden  statue.f  When  the  heathen 
Icelander  Hallfred  YandrseSaskald  wished  to  get 
quickly  away  from  ISTorway,  which  Olaf  Tryggvason 
was  just  then  converting  to  Cliristianity,  he  and  his 
seamen  united  in  making  vows  to  the  Gods,  in  order 
to  get  a  fair  wind  for  any  heathen  country  whatso- 
ever, and  they  promised  to  give  goods  (f6)  and  three 
barrels,  of  ale  to  Frey  if  they  could  get  a  fair  wind 
for  Sweden,  or  to  Thor  or  Odin,  if  they  came  back 
to  Iceland.:]:  The  purport  of  this  gift  we  suppose  to 
be,  that  there  should  be  a  banquet  held  at  which 
they  would  drink  the  promised  ale  to  the  honor  of 
the  Gods  they  called  npon.  During  a  severe  win- 
ter in  Iceland,  the  people  of  Reykdal  held  a  meet- 
ing at  tlie  house  of  the  hofgo5i  Ljot,  on  the  Thvera 

*  Fareyinga  S.  23. 

f  Snor.:  OJ.  Hel.  S.  118-119. 

:j:  01.  Tr.  S.  15-i,  in  Fornra.  S.  p.  1.5, 


228  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

and  unanimouslj  agreed  to  make  vows  in  order  to 
obtain  a  better  state  of  weather.  Ljot  thought  they 
ought  to  promise  gifts  to  the  temple,  and  to  let  the 
new-born  infants  be  exposed  and  kill  off  the  old  peo- 
ple. But  Askell,  a  pious  chieftain,  raised  objections 
to  this  proposition.  It  would  be  better,  said  he,  for 
them  to  promise,  in  honor  of  the  Creator,  to  give 
property  to  support  the  aged  and  bring  up  the  chil- 
dren. Askell's  humane  counsel  was  also  followed.- 
Prayers  were  for  the  most  part  connected  with  the 
sacrifices,  and  it  was  believed  that  they  must  be  ut- 
tered with  great  precision  and  care,  wherefore  the 
people  mostly  confined  themselves  to  certain  formu- 
las which  were  composed  by  the  priests  most  deeply 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Keligion.f  AVhen 
they  wished  to  pray  right  zealously,  they  cast  them- 
selves down  with  the  face  upon  the  ground  before 
the  image  of  the  God. 

Purifications  were  also  among  the  sacred  rites 
of  the  Northmen's  worship,  as  we  have  seen  in  tlie 
above  reference  to  the  sacrpd  Ilelgafell  in  Iceland, 
which  no  person  could  look  upon  before  he  had 
washed  himself  :j:  Not  only  water,  but  also  fire,  was 
esteemed  a  means  of  purification  ;  hence  the  custom, 
at  the  sacrificial  feasts,  of  bearing  the  filled  horns 
around  or  between  the  fires  before  they  emptied 
them.  Fire  was  regarded  with  veneration,  and  the 
people  consecrated  landed  property  and  appro, 
priated  it  to  themselves  l)y  passing  around  it  with 

*  Vemundar  S.  7,  in  Islendinga  Sogur  U.,  p.  2 IS. 
f  TheO.Eada:  IIavaradll45-l  J6. 
t  Chap.  XX. 


THE   DIVINE   SERVICE    OF   THE   HEATHEN.         229 

burning  fire,  the  ceremonj  being  performed  by 
walking  or  riding  around  tlie  place  against  the  sun 
(andscBhs),  I.  e.,  from  west  to  east,  with  a  flaming 
brand^'.  ^ 

*  Ha.n8na>6ris  S.  10 ;  Yiga-Gl.  S.  26;  Landnmb.  III.  6;  V.  1,  3.  • 


11 


230  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 


CHAPTER  XXn. 

THE  WORSHIP    OF   THE    DEAD,  AND   OF   NATURAL  OBJECTS. 

It  was  not  merely  the  JEsir  and  the  spiritual 
beings  allied  to  them  that  the  heathen  Northmen 
made  the  object  of  their  worship  ;  we  find  they  also 
placed  confidence  in  departed  human  beings  as  well 
as  animate  or  inanimate  natural  objects,  and  even 
worshiped  them, 

A  few  noble  and  virtuous  men,  who,  during  life, 
had  effected  much  good  in  their  circle,  were  some- 
times worshiped  after  death  as  guardian  spirits  of 
the  country  or  the  region  in  which  they  had  lived 
and  labored  for  good.  Thus  King  Olaf  Gu5ro5sson 
of  Yestfold,  who  dwelt  at  Gierstad,  was  worshiped 
after  his  death  by  his  former  subjects;  they  sacri- 
ficed upon  his  burial-mound  and  called  him  Geir- 
sta5a-alfr,  or  Geirstad's  Spirit.*  Of  another  North- 
man, Grim  Kamban,  the  first  settler  who  made  a 
permanent  residence  on  the  Faroe  Islands,  it  is  like- 
wise related  that  ''  after  his  death  they  sacrificed  to 
him  on  account  of  the  favor  in  which  he  stood."t 
It  is  related  of  the  Swedes  that  at  the  time  when 
Ansgarius  proclaimed  Christianity  in  Sweden,  they 

*  |dttr  af  Olafi  Geirsta^a-^lfi. 
f  Landnnib,  I,  14. 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  THE  DEAD.         23l 

increased  the  number  of  tlieir  Gods  by  admitting 
among  tliem— in  consequence,  it  was  said,  of  a  reve- 
lation from  above— one  of  their  departed  Kings, 
Eirik,  to  whom  they  dedicated  a  temple  and  in 
whose  service  special  priests  were  appointed  * 
These  deified  spirits  of  the  Dead  were  doubtless 
mostly  regarded  as  a  kind  of  Land-guardians  (Land- 
vsettir). 

An  idolatry  far  more  gross,  according  to  our  ideas, 
was  practiced  by  a  few,  who  worshiped  and  put 
their  faith  in  natural  objects,  sometimes  animate  and 
sometimes  inanimate. 

We  find  it  mentioned  in  a  few  places  that  living 
men  were  worshiped,  an  idolatry  which  the  Chris''- 
tians  considered  the  most  abominable  of  all,  but 
which  was  certainly  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

Many  traces,  however,  of  the  worship  of  animals 
are  to  be  found. 

The  faith  which  some  placed  in  horses,  has  been 
already  alluded  to.f  This  may  be  understood  when 
we  remember  that  the  horse  was  beyond  all  doubt 
an  animal  sacred  to  Frey,  and  therefore  may  have 
been  worshiped  as  the  symbol  of  that  God. 

The  worship  of  oxen  and  cows  is  likewise  men- 
tioned. The  Korse  chieftain  Ilarek,  who  lived  in 
Olaf  Tryggvason's  time,  and  dwelt  at  Eein,  was  ac- 
cused of  secretly  sacrificing  to  an  unusually  large 
and  strong  ox  that  he  owned.+  A  certain  King 
Eystein  of  Upsala,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Kag- 

*  Kimbertus  :  Vita  Ansgarii,  cap.  23. 

t  Chap.  XVII. 

t  i)6ttr  |)6rst.  Uxaf6ts,  13,  in  Fornm.  S.  Ill,  p.  132. 


^3^  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

nar  Lu5br6k  and  liis  sons,  appears  to  have  had  great 
faith  m  a  cow  which  was  called  Sibilia  (the  ever-bel- 
lowing?). To  this  cow,  says  the  account,  they  sacri- 
ficed o-reatly,  and  no  one  could  endure  to  hear  her 
bellowing.  Therefore,  the  King  was  accustomed  to 
let  her  go  in  advance  of  his  army,  when  he  marched 
forth  against  his  enemies.*  It  is  related  of  the  Nor- 
wegian Fylki-King  Augvald,  that  he  made  special 
sacrifices  to  a  cow  which  he  took  with  him  whither- 
soever he  went,  by  sea  or  by  land,  and  whose  milk 
he  esteemed  as  a  medicine.  When  he  died  the  cow 
was  laid  in  a  mound  near  his  own.f  Perhaps  sacred 
cows  were  symbols  of  the  mytbic  cow  Au6humla, 
although  there  are  no  traces  of  her  worship  to  be 
found. 

Small  metallic  images  of  both  horses  and  oxen  are 
found  in  the  heathen  burial-mounds  in  ISTorway,  and 
may  without  doubt  be  regarded  as  relics  of  the  wor- 
ship of  these  animals. 

When  the  Norse  chieftain  Floki  Yilger5arson 
was  preparing  to  set  out  from  Kogaland  in  search  of 
Iceland,  he  set  up  a  great  sacrifice  at  Smorsund,  and 
sacrificed  to  three  ravens,  or  consecrated  them  by 
sacrifices,  in  order  that  they  might  show  him  the 
way.  By  their  direction,  it  seems,  he  found  the  land 
he  was  seeking  for4  Floki's  olFering,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, was  actually  to  Odin,  and  for  this  the  birds 
of  Odin  were  to  show  him  the  way. 

With  regard  to  animal- worship  aomng  the  hea- 

*  llagnar  L6Sbr.  S.  8. 

\  Snor. :  01.  Tr.  S.  71 ;  01.  Tr.  S.  V^t  in  Fornm.  S.  II.,  p.  138. 

;j:  Landnmb.  I.  2. 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  NATURAL   OBJEOTS.  233 

then  Nortlimen,  it  is  by  no  means  clear  what  signi- 
ficance they  attached  to  it — whether  they  imagined 
a  Deity  in  any  manner  incarnated  in  the  animal — or 
whether  they  regarded  it  merely  as  sacred  to  a  cer- 
tain Deity — or  finally,  whether  they  imagined  it  by 
any  magic  spells  to  be  endowed  with  supernatural 
powers.  Without  doubt,  the  worship  of  animals  was 
most  frequently  regarded  from  one  of  the  two  last- 
mentioned  points  of  view,  and  was  usually  in  the 
nearest  connection  with  the  belief  in  sorcery. 

Of  inanimate  things  we  find  Mounds,  Stones, 
Groves,  and  Waterfalls  mentioned  as  objects  of  wor- 
ship with  some  individuals. 

Sacrifices  to  Mounds  cannot  have  been  of  very 
rare  occurrence ;  for  in  the  Christian  Code  of  the 
"  Older  Gula-Thing  Laws "  they  are  expressly  for- 
bidden, along  with  sacrifices  to  heathen  Gods  and 
altars.  In  the  somewhat  fabulous  Saga  of  Ketil 
Hseng,  a  mound  of  Good  Seasons  (Arhaugr,  i.  e.^ 
Mound  of  Fruitfulness)  is  mentioned,  to  which  the  in- 
habitants of  Gestrekaland  (in  Sweden)  sacrificed,  in 
order  to  obtain  favorable  seasons,  and  upon  which 
the  snow  never  lay."^  JSTo  doubt  such  sacred  mounds 
were  the  graves  of  men  who  had  been  deified  after 
death,  or  else  they  were  thought  to  be  the  dwelling- 
places  of  the  Elves.f 

Tlie  Icelandic  settler  Eyvind,  son  of  Lo5in  Aungul 
of  Ilalogaland,  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  to  some 
stones,  called  Gunnsteinar,  which  marked  the  bound- 

*  Ketil  Hangs  S.  5  in  Fornald.  S.  II. 
t  See  Chap.  XVIII. 


234  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

aries  of  his  estate  in  Flateyjardal,  in  tlie  north  Fj6r5- 
ung  of  Iceland. -^^  The  Icelander  Thorstein  Gull- 
knapp  had  a  stone  in  his  sacrificial  house,  to  which 
he  sacrificed  and  before  which  he  cast  himself  down 
upon  the  earth  when  he  worshiped  it.f  Finally,  it 
is  stated  that  on  the  estate  Gilja  in  Yatnsdal,  in 
North-Iceland,  a  large  stone  was  standing,  to  which 
the  owner  of  the  estate,  Ko5ran  EiKfsson  and  his 
kinsfolk,  offered  up  sacrifices ;  for  they  said  that  in 
it  dwelt  their  Ar-ma5r  (Year-Man,  the  bestower  of 
prosperous  seasons  or  fruitfulness).  Concerning  this 
stone,  the  legend  farther  says,  that  it  split  asunder 
when  it  was  sprinkled  with  holy-water  by  Bishop 
FriSrek,  who  had  accompanied  Ko5ran's  son,  Tlior- 
vald  yi5forla,  from  Germany  to  his  native  island, 
in  order  to  preach  Christianity  there.:!:  Some  such 
Elf  or  Guardian  Spirit  as  the  one  last  named  was 
always  imagined  to  dwell  in  the  adored  stones. 

Tlie  JSTorthman  Thorir  Snepil,  who  settled  in 
Fnjoskadal  in  the  E'orth-Fj6r5ung  of  Iceland,  sacri- 
ficed to  a  grove  in  the  vicinity,  from  which  his 
estate  was  named.§ 

Of  the  Icelander  Thorstein  Eau5nef,  who  was  a 
great  sacrificer  and  was  also  far-sighted  or  clairvoy- 
ant, it  is  related,  that  he  sacrificed  to  a  waterfiill 
(fos)  near  his  house,  into  which  he  caused  all  rem- 
nants to  be  thrown.  On  the  night  of  his  death,  it  is 
further  related,  his  whole  fiock  of  sheep,  consisting 

*  Landnmb.  III.,  IT. 

f  Hor5s  S.  37. 

X  Kristni  S.  2 ;  compare  with  01.  Tr.  S.  131  in  Fornm.  S.  I. 

§  Landnmb.  III.  11. 


THE    WOKSIIIP    OF    NATURAL    OBJECTS.  235 

of  more  than  two  thousand,  leaped  over  the  water- 
fall and  were  destroyed.*  In  many  parts  of  'Noy- 
way  the  belief  is  still  prevalent  that  a  being,  which 
is  universally  called  Fosse-Grim,  has  its  abode  in  the 
waterfalls.  This  superstition  is  evidently  a  relic  of 
the  old  heathen  belief  in  a  similar  being,  in  which 
the  worship  of  waterfalls  may  have  originated. 

From  all  that  is  above  quoted  on  the  worship  of 
inanimate  objects  among  the  heathen  E'orthmen, 
we  have  every  reason  to  presume  that  this  idolatry 
was  most  intimately  connected  with  the  belief  in 
Elves,  and  really  originated  in  it. 

*  Landnmb.  V.  5. 


236  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN, 


CHAPTEK    XXIIL 

OATHS  ;   DUELS  AND  BERSERKSGANG  ;    ORDEALS  OR  JUDG- 
MENTS   OF   THE    GODS. 

As  tlie  heathen  Northmen  considered  Judicial 
Proceedings  in  the  main  to  be  closely  connected 
with  Religion,  and,  so  to  speak,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Gods,  from  whom  they  imagined  all  Law  and 
Justice  originally  proceeded — so  did  they  also  con- 
ceive that  the  Gods,  especially  in  certain  legal  pro- 
ceedings, more  immediately  made  their  appearance, 
either  as  witnesses  or  as  judges.  Of  such  proceed- 
ings the  Oath  and  the  Duel  were  the  most  import- 
ant. 

The  Oath  (ei6r)  was  regarded  by  the  heathen 
ISTorthmen  as  a  most  sacred  act.  The  solemn  Oath 
was  administered  in  a  temple  or  at  the  great  Assem- 
blies (|>ing).  He  who  took  the  oath  called  upon 
one  or  more  of  the  JEsir  to  witness,  while  he  held  in 
his  hand  the  so-called  Altar-ring  (stalla-hringr,) 
w^hich  had  been  dipped  beforehand  in  the  blood  of 
a  sacrificed  ox.  This  x\ltar-ring  was  to  be  of  silver, 
or  of  gold  when  convenient,  with  the  ends  unjoined 
(motlauss),  and  should  weigh  at  least  two  ounces ; 
there  was  to  be  one  in  every  chief-temple,  to  have 
its  place  upon  the  high- altar  (stallr);  whence  its 


OATHS.  237 

name.  When  the  temple-priest  (hofgo6i)  who  was 
also  Ruler  of  the  district  (hera5s-hof6ingi),  was  pres- 
ent at  the  Thing  or  in  the  Assemblies  where  he 
had  to  appear  as  Judge  of  the  Court,  he  wore  the 
ring  upon  his  arm  in  order  to  have  it  always  at 
hand  in  the  possible  event  of  administering  an  oath. 
To  swear  such  an  oath  was  called  "to  take  oath 
upon  the  Altar-ring  "  (vinna  ei6  at  stallahring),  or 
"to  take  Temple-oath  "  (vinna  hofsei5).^ 

In  two  places  in  the  ancient  Sagas — in  the  Land- 
namabok  and  in  Yiga-Glum's  Saga — we  find  a 
prettj  full  exposition  of  the  administration  of  Oaths 
among  the  heathen  Northmen. 

In  the  former,  speaking  of  the  heathen  laws  of 
Iceland,  it  is  said  that  "a  ring  of  two  ounces  in 
weight,  or  larger,  shall  lie  upon  the  altar  (a  stalla) 
in  every  chief-temple ;  this  ring  shall  the  priest  bear 
upon  his  arm  at  all  the  assemblies  of  the  people 
which  he  shall  preside  over  (heya);  and  he  shall 
beforehand  dip  it  (rj65ra,  properly,  redden  it)  in  the 
blood  of  the  ox  which  he  himself  has  sacrificed. 
Every  man  who  may  have  a  case  to  be  tried  before 
the  Court  ({)urfti  logskil  af  hendi  at  leysa  at  domi), 
shall  first  take  oath  upon  this  ring,  and  name  for 
himself  two  or  more  witnesses :  '  I  call  upon  these 
men  as  witnesses,'  he  shall  then  say,  '  That  I  take 
oath  upon  the  ring  (at  ek  vinna  ei6  at  baugi),  hiwful 
oath,  so  help  me  Frey  and  ]^jor5  and  the  Almighty 
As  (Odin),  that  I  will  so  prosecute — or  defend,  or 

*  Eyrb.  S.  4,  16,  44 ;  Kjalnes.  S.  2 ;  Dropl.  Son.  S.  6;  Landnmb. 
IV.  17  ;  Viga-Gl.  S.  25. 
11* 


238  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

bear  witness  in,  or  judge — this  cause  in  such  manner 
as  I  know  to  be  most  just  and  true,  and  most  con- 
sistent with  the  law,  and  that  I  will  fulfill  all  lawful 
obligations  (ok  ull  lugmcet  skil  af  hendi  leysa)  con- 
cerning the  cases  which  I  may  have  to  act  upon, 
while  I  am  in  this  Assembly.'  "" 

Yiga-Glum's  Saga  relates  how  the  Icelandic 
Chieftain  Glum  Eyjolfsson  (Yiga-Glum)  took  oath 
that  he  had  not  committed  a  murder  of  which  he 
had  been  accused.  He  was  sentenced  to  take  the 
oath  at  three  temples  in  Eyjafjor5,  viz. :  at  Djiipadal, 
at  Gnupafell,  and  at  Thvera.  "  When  he  had  come 
with  his  attendants,"  it  is  stated,  "  to  the  temple  in 
Djupadal,  six  men  entered  the  temple  with  Glum. 
The  man  who  was  to  administer  the  Temple-oath 
(vinna  hofsei5),  took  in  his  hand  a  silver  ring,  dip- 
ped (r65inn,  i.  e.^  red-colored)  in  the  blood  of  an  ox 
that  was  sacrificed;  and  this  ring  did  not  weigh 
less  than  three  ounces.  Tlien  Glum  began  to  speak 
thus :  '  I  name  Asgrim  as  a  witness  and  Gizur  as 
another  witness  that  I  take  the  Temple  oath  on  the 
ring,  and  declare  before  God,  i.  e.,  Odin  (at  ek  vinn 
]iofsei5  at  baugi  ok  segi  ek  fat  iEsi,  I  c,  05inn), 
that  I  was  not  present  there,  and  did  not  commit 
murder  there,  and  did  not  stain  .point  and  edge  with 
blood  there,  where  Thorvakl  Krok  was  killed  (at 
ek  vark-at  J)ar,  ok  vak-at  |)ar,  ok  rau5k-at  far  odd  ok 
Qcro'^  er  J)6rvaldr  Ivrokr  fekk  bana).  Give  heed 
now  to  the  oath,  ye  who  are  wise  men,  and  are  here 
present !'  "     The  form  of  this  oath  may  serve  at  the 

*  Landnmb.  IV.  7, 


OATHS.  239 

same  time  as  an  example  of  the  craftiness  which  was 
sometimes  employed  on  such  occasions ;  for  Glum, 
who  actually  had  committed  the  murder,  from 
which  he  intended  to  clear  himself  on  oath,  had 
craftily  arranged  his  words  in  so  ambiguous  a  man- 
ner that,  when  critically  examined,  they  contained  a 
direct  confession  of  the  murder.  The  ambiguity 
which  lies  in  the  use  of  the  particle  at — which  as  a 
suffix  in  the  Old-Korse  signifies  both  not  and  at^  or 
present  at — cannot  be  expressed  in  the  translation. 
The  witnesses  seemed  to  think  the  formula  which 
Glum  made  use  of  to  be  rather  unusual,  but  did  not 
notice  the  trick  until  a  more  sagacious  chieftain 
showed  them,  some  time  afterward,  how  they  had 
been  humbugged.  Glum's  murder  case  was  again 
taken  up  by  the  Supreme  Court  (Al-|)ing),  and  to 
escape  outlawry  he  had  to  give  over  the  half  of  his 
estate  to  the  son  of  the  murdered  man,  as  a 
penalty.^^ 

The  former  of  the  above  cited  oath-formulas  was 
doubtless  used  before  the  Courts  of  Justice  of 
heathendom,  not  only  in  Iceland  but  also  in  IN'or- 
way,  from  whence  the  inhabitants  of  that  island 
brought  it  with  them.  Frey,  Njor5,  and  Odin,  who 
were  probably  meant  by  the  term  Almighty  As, 
were  therefore  the  Deities'  generally  called  to  wit- 
ness in  Oaths ;  sometimes,  however,  the  term  As  or 
Odin  only  was  employed,  as  is  seen  in  the  second 
formula. 

Out  of  Courts  they  made  use  of  other  oaths j  as 

*  Yiga-Gl.  S,  25. 


240  REiLIGION    OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

we  find  they  swore  by  certain  objects  wliicli  were 
looked  upon  as  holy,  or  as  symbols  of  something 
holy.  Such  oaths  are  named  in  various  places  in 
the  old  Eddaic  poems :  for  instance,  by  the  Deck 
of  the  Ship,  by  the  Margin  of  the  Shield,  by  the 
Edge  of  the  Sword,  by  the  Lightning's  light  Water, 
i.  e.,  flash,  by  the  southward  declining  Sun,  i.  e.^ 
Mid-day  Sun,  and  many  such  things.  When 
Yolund  wishes  to  secure  his  bride,  the  daughter  of 
King  KiSaS,  against  the  molestations  of  her  father, 
he  exacts  of  the  king  an  oath  that  he  will  not  do  her 
any  harm : 

"First  shalt  thou  swear  me 
All  the  oaths : — 
By  the  Ship's  deck 
And  the  Shield's  margin, 
By  the  Steed's  neck 
And  the  Sword's  edge, — 
That  thou  torment  not 
The  wife  of  Volund, 
Nor  of  my  bride 
"Become  the  destroyer."* 

Sigrun  upbraids  her  brother  Dag,  for  having  broken 
his  oath  to  her  husband  Helgi,  in  the  following 
words : 

"  Ma}'  all  the  oaths 
Recoil  upon  thee, 
Which  thou  hast  sworn 
To  Ilelgi,— 
By  the  light  waters 
Of  Leiptur's  stream, f 

*  The  0.  Edda:  Volundarkvi^a,  31. 

fLeiptr — lightning — is  one  of  the  mythic  streams  mentioned 
in  the  Edda  as  flowing  out  from  Hvergelmir,  the  great  source  of 
all  streams.  "  |)a6an  eiga  votn  oil  vega,''  "  thence  the  streams  all 
have  their  ways." 


OATHS  ; DUELS. 

And  by  the  cold  stones 
Beneath  the  sea."* 

When  Gu5ruii  Gjukaclottir  reminds  lier  husband 
Atli  of  the  oaths  he  has  broken  toward  her  brother 
Gunnar,  she  says : 

"  So  may  it  befall  thee,  Atli ! 
As  thou  held  oaths 
Oft  sworn  with  Gunnar 
And  early  given; — 
By  the  Sun  southward  bearing, 
By  Sigtyr'sf  strong  mountain, 
By  the  sanctity  of  the  couch 
And  by  Ullur's  ring."^ 

How  the  expressions  occurring  in  these  formulas 
were  to  be  taken,  whether  literally  or  figuratively, 
it  is  now  impossible  to  determine. 

Sometimes,  also,  there  occurs  a  formula  by  which 
the  swearer  wishes  himself  in  the  power  of  evil 
beings,  or  that  misfortune  may  strike  him,  if  he 
swear  falsely.  Thus  it  is  said  of  King  Atli's  mes- 
senger Yingi : 

"Then  swore  Vingi 
Himself  little  sparing : 
Might  the  Jotuns  take  him 
If  on  oath  he  lied. 
And  the  gallows  his  body 
If  he  the  peace  disturbed. "§ 

Duelliug  was  known  among  the  heathen  North- 


*  The  0.  Edda:  Helgakv.  Hundb.  II.,  29. 
f  Sigtyr,  the  God  of  Victory,  a  name  of  Odin. 
X  Th^  0.  Edda:  Atlakv.  30. 
8  TheO.  Edda:  Alamdl  31. 


242  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

men  by  two  names :  holmganga  and  einvigi,  terms 
which  were  sometimes  distinguished,  but  which 
were  more  frequently  used  indiscriminately. 

The  holmgang  was  so  named  because  it  origin- 
ally took  place  on  an  islet  or  holm,  where  the  com- 
batants could  be  more  undisturbed  and  less  liable  to 
be  interfered  with  by  others,  wdio  might  venture  to 
mingle  in  their  quarrel,  or  separate  them  against 
their  will ;  and  where  the  field  of  battle  might  have, 
natural  boundaries  beyond  which  neither  of  the 
parties  could  ^^ossibly  retreat.  Other  artificially- 
inclosed  battle-grounds  afterwards  took  the  place  of 
the  holms,  but  they  still  retained  the  name,  and 
when  possible,  were  laid  out  upon  a  small  island. 
The  holmgang  took  place  after  a  preliminary  chal- 
lenge (at  skora  a  holm  ;  at  skora  a  til  holmgongu),  at 
which  the  time  and  place  were  fixed,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  challenger  declared  his  antagonist,  should 
he  not  accept  the  challenge,  to  be  every  man's 
Kithing,  i.  <?.,  a  man  whom  every  one  might  scoflf 
with  impunity. 

The  usages  of  the  holmgang  are  variously  de- 
scribed ;  no  doubt  they  varied  in  minor  essentials  at 
diflferent  periods,  and  were  probably  dependent,  in 
many  particulars,  upon  the  choice  of  the  combat- 
ants, especially  of  the  challenger.  A  few  of  the 
more  detailed  accounts  of  such  duels,  according  to 
the  Sagas,  shall  here  be  given. 

The  Icelander  Egil  Skallagrimsson,  while  on  a 
journey  through  Xorway  in  the  time  of  Hakon  A5al- 
steinsfostri,  came  to  the  estate  of  Blindheim  on  the 
island  IIau5,  where  a  young  parish  overseer,  !Fri5- 


DUELS.  24:d 

geir,   dwelt  with  his  mother  Gy5a.     He  found  a 
friendly  reception  with  them  and  stayed  in  Blind- 
heim  several  days.     During  this  time  he  noticed  that 
a  great  affliction  rested  upon  the  whole  household, 
but  especially  upon  Fri5geir's  sister  ;  yet  it  was  not 
imtil  he  was  on  the  eve  of  departure  that  Gy5a  re- 
vealed to  him  the  cause  of  this  sadness.     A  man 
with  the  name  of  Ljot  the  Pale,  a  universally-hated 
Berserk  and  duellist  (h61mgaungu-ma5r),  had  sued 
for  the  daughter,  and  having  been  rejected,  he  had 
challenged  Fri5geir  to  a  holmgang.     On  the  follow- 
ing day  they  were  to  meet  (ganga  a  holm)  on  the 
island  Yorl,  and  Gy5a  now  begged  of  Egil,  who  was 
an  expert  swordsman,  that  he  would  accompany  her 
son  thither.     Egil  promised  to  do  so,  and  remained 
that  day  at  Blindheim.     "  In  the  evening  came  the 
friends  of  Fri5geir  who  had  resolved  to  bear  him 
company  ;  there  were  many  men  assembled  during 
the  night,  and  a  great  banquet.     But  on  the  day 
after,  Fri5geir  made  ready  for  the  journey,  and  many 
men  with  him  ;  Egil  was  in  his  train.     It  was  good 
weather  for  traveling.     They  set  off  and  arrived  at 
the  island.     At  the  place  of  meeting  there  was  a 
broad  embankment  stretching  along  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  sea ;  upon  this  the  holm-stead  was 
marked  off,  with  stones  laid  in  a  circle  round  about 
it.     ^Now  Ljot  came  along  with  his  folk  and  made 
ready  for  battle;  he   had  both  sword  and  shield. 
Ljot   was  a  very  large   and  strong    man,    and  as 
he  was  walkino;  forth    alon^r  the  embankment    to 
the  place  of  combat,  the  Berserksgang  came  sud- 
denly upon  him ;  he  began  to  yell  horribly  and  bite 
his  shield.     FriSgeir  was  not  large  ;  he  was  si  en 


244  KELIGION   OF  THE   NOETHMEN. 

aud  of  beautiful  countenance,  but  not  strong ; 
neither  had  he  at  any  time  taken  part  in  a  fight. 
When  Egil  saw  Ljot,  he  sung  a  verse  in  which  he 
said  that  the  battle  would  not  go  off  well  for  Fri5- 
geir  ;  he  himself  would  meet  the  terrible  champion 
who,  biting  in  his  shield's  edge,  called  upon  the 
Gods.*  Ljot  saw  Egil  and  heard  his  words.  '  Come 
up  hither  to  the  holm,  thou  great  man !'  said  he, 
'  and  fight  with  me,  if  thou  hast  such  a  great  de- 
sire to  do  so.  That  will  be  much  better  than  for  me 
to  fight  with  Fri5geir ;  for  I  shall  not  add  to  my 
glory  by  laying  him  upon  the  ground.'  Egil  answered 
in  a  verse  that  he  accepted  the  challenge.  Tliere- 
upon  Egil  made  ready  for  a  holmgang  with  Ljot. 
He  had  the  shield  which  he  was  wont  to  bear,  and 
in  his  belt  was  the  sword  which  he  called  Xa5ra 
(Yiper) ;  Dragvandil — the  sword  he  generally  used 
— he  had  in  his  hand.  He  went  in  over  the  marks 
which  bounded  the  place  of  combat ;  but  Ljot  was 
not  yet  ready.  Egil  brandished  his  sword  and  sung 
a  verse  in  which  he  threatened  his  anta2:onist.  Then 
comes  Ljot  forth  upon  the  battle  ground  and  pro- 
nounces the  hohngang  laws,  ^  that  he  shall  forever 
bear  the  name  of  Nithing  who  retreats  beyond  the 
boundary  stones  which  are  set  up  in  a  ring  around 
the  holmgang.'  Then  they  ran  in  upon  each  other, 
and  Egil  hewed  at  Ljot,  but  the  latter  warded  off 
with  his  shield.  Egil  struck  now  one  blow  after  an- 
other, so  that  Ljot  could  not  make  a  single  stroke  in 
defense.       He   moved   backward   in   order  to   a'et 

*  The  magic  songs  which  were  to  protect  the  champion  in  battle, 
■were  sung  under  the  eliield,  by  setting  the  mouth  to  its  edge,  per- 
haps to  make  the  sound  louder.     Sec  0.  Edda  :  Ildvam^il,  157. 


DUELS.  245 

sword-room;  but  Egil  was  just  as  quickly  after  liim 
and  was  not  sparing  in  liis  blows.  In  this  manner 
Ljot  passed  out  over  tlie  boundary  stones  and  far 
along  tlie  embankment.  Thus  the  first  round  was 
ended  and  Ljot  demanded  rest.  Egil  let  it  be  so  ; 
they  stood  still  and  rested  a  while.  It  was  a  law  of 
the  holmgang,  at  that  time,  that  when  one  party  de- 
manded anything  of  the  other  and  conquered,  he 
should  have  as  reward  of  victory  (sigrmal),  whatever 
he  had  demanded ;  but  should  he  be  overcome,  he 
was  to  acquit  himself  with  so  much  property  as 
might  be  agreed  upon  ;  and  if  he  fell  on  the  holm, 
then  all  his  possessions  were  forfeited,  and  the  one 
who  slew  him  was  to  inherit  after  him.  Egil  now 
caused  Ljot  to  make  ready  :  '  I  wish  we  may  now 
put  an  end  to  this  holmgang !'  Ljot  sprang  hastily 
up.  Egil  ran  up  to  him,  hewed  at  him  straightway, 
and  came  so  near  his  life  that  he  gave  way  and  ex- 
posed himself,  for  his  shield  slipped  from  him. 
Then  Egil  hewed  at  Ljot ;  the  blow  struck  him  above 
the  knee  and  took  off  his  foot.  Ljot  fell  and  died 
immediately.  His  death  was  but  little  mourned,  for 
he  had  been  a  most  turbulent  man.  He  was  a 
Swede  by  birth,  and  had  no  kinsmen  in  N'orway. 
He  had  come  thither  and  had  accumulated  property 
by  holmgang,  as  he  had  slain  many  good  citizens  to 
whom  he  had  given  tire  choice  between  holmgang 
and  a  relinquishment  of  their  lands  and  allodial  pos- 
sessions. He  had  in  this  manner  become  very 
wealthy,  both  in  lands  and  movables."* 

*  Egil's  s.  6Y. 


246  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

Egil  Skallagrimsson  had  at  the  same  time  an  in- 
heritance to  claim  in  Norway,  which  a  certain  Atli 
the  Short  held  in  possession  by  an  unju§t  decree  of 
King  Eirik  Blood-axe.  As  Eirik  was  now  banished 
from  the  country,  Egil  thought  that  he  might  per- 
haps be  able  to  establish  his  claims ;  he  accordingly 
repaired  to  Ask,  the  residence  of  Atli,  on  Fenring 
island  near  Hor5aland,  in  order  to  claim  his  inherit- 
ance. Atli  refused  to  pay  up,  but  accepted  Egil's 
summons  to  appear  at  the  Giola  Thing  to  have  the 
case  decided.  Tliey  both  accordingly  made  their 
appearance  at  the  Thing.  Egil  claimed  his  inherit- 
ance before  the  Tribunal ;  but  Atli  proffered  Tylft- 
ar-ei5,  or  the  Oath  of  twelve  men,  that  he  had  no 
property  whatever  in  his  care,  belonging  to  Egil. 
"  When  Atli  came  before  the  court  (domr)  with  the 
men  who  were  to  take  oath  for  him,  Egil  appeared 
against  him  and  said  that  he  would  not  accept  Atli's 
oaths  for  his  (Egil's)  property.  'I  will  offer  thee 
another  law,  this,  namely,  that  we  shall  go  to  holm 
here  at  the  Thing^  and  he  who  conquers  shall  have 
this  property.'  This  proposition  of  Egil's  was 
according  to  law  and  ancient  usage,  i.  e.^  that  every 
man  had  the  right  to  challenge  another  to  a  holm- 
gang,  either  in  prosecution  or  defense  of  his  cause. 
Atli  said  he  would  not  object  to  a  holmgang  with 
Egil.  They  then  took  each  other  by  the  hand  and 
came  to  a  mutual  agreement  that  they  would  fight 
(ganga  a  holm),  and  that  the  victor  should  take  pos- 
session of  the  disputed  lands.  Thereupon  they 
armed  themselves  for  the  holmgang.  Egil  went 
forth  with  helmet  upon  his  head,  a  shield  before  him 


DUELS.  247 

and  a  spear  (kesja)  in  hand;  but  the  sword  Drag- 
vandil  lie  had  firmly  secured  in  his  right  hand.  It 
was  a  custom  of  the  holmgang-men  to  equip  them- 
selves so  that  they  had  no  occasion  to  draw  their 
swords  upon  the  holm,  but  could  have  the  sword  in 
hand  always  ready  for  use.  Atli  was  armed  in  the 
same  manner.  He  was  accustomed  to  the  holm- 
gang,  and  was  besides  a  strong  man  and  very  bold. 
A  large  and  old  ox  was  then  led  forth ;  this  was 
called  blotnaut,  i.  e.^  Ox  of  Sacrifice,  and  the  victor 
was  to  kill  it  (hoggva).  Sometimes  there  was  one 
ox,  sometimes  each  of  the  combatants  led  out  his 
own.  When  they  were  equipped  and  all  was  ready, 
they  rushed  forth  upon  each  other  and  first  threw 
their  spears,  but  neither  of  them  pierced  the  shield ; 
they  were  both  left  sticking  in  the  ground.  They 
then  seized  their  swords ;  they  closed  in  upon  each 
other  and  exchanged  blows.  They  hewed  thick  and 
heavy,  and  soon  the  shields  became  useless.  As 
Atli's  shield  became  much  injured,  he  cast  it  away, 
seized  his  sword  with  both  hands  and  hewed  briskly. 
Egil  struck  him  over  the  shoulders,  but  the  sword 
did  not  cmt;  he  gave  the  second  and  the  third 
stroke,  and  it  was  easy  for  him  to  get  a  stroke  at 
Atli ;  for  Atli  had  not  any  defense.  But  although 
Egil  swung  his  sword  with  might  and  main,  still  it 
did  not  cut,  with  all  that  he  hewed.  Egil  now  saw 
that  all  this  was  of  no  use,  for  his  own  shield  was 
beginning  to  give  way.  So  he  let  go  sword  and 
shield,  ran  in  upon  Atli  and  seized  him  with  his 
hands.  Now  all  could  see  which  of  them  was 
strongest.     Atli   was  thrown  upon  his  back ;   but 


248  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

Egil  cast  himself  fiercely  down  upon  liiin  and  bit  his 
throat  asunder.  Thus  did  Atli  give  up  his  life. 
Egil  sprang  up  immediately  and  rushed  to  the  place 
where  the  sacrificial  ox  was  standing,  seized  w^ith 
one  hand  the  chops,  and  with  the  other  the  horn, 
and  wrested  it  around  so  violently  that  the  feet  of 
the  animal  came  up  into  the  air  and  its  neck  was 
broken.  Then  Egil  took  possession  of  all  the  lands 
about  which  the  quarrel  had  been."* 

It  appears,  however,  that  the  holmgang  was 
mostly  attended  with  a  great  many  more  circum- 
stances than  those  above  described. 

The  Icelandic  Skald  Kormak  Ogmundsson,  was 
embittered  against  his  fellow-countryman  Bersi — 
commonly  called  Holmgang-Bersi — because  the  lat- 
ter had  married  Steinger5a,  a  woman  whom  Kormak 
loved.  He  therefore  challenged  Bersi  to  a  holm- 
gang  in  a  fortnight  iipon  Lei5holm.  When  the 
appointed  time  was  come  they  rode  to  the  place  of 
meeting,  each  with  fifteen  men.  Many  others  had 
also  assembled  to  see  the  fight.  "  J^ow  they  took  a 
felld  (a  kind  of  large  cloak)  and  spread  out  under 
the  feet  of  Kormak  and  Bersi.  Bersi  said,  '  Thou 
hast  challenged  me  to  a  holmgang,  Kormak  !  but  I 
ofler  thee  single  combat  (einvigi).  Thou  art  a  young 
and  inexperienced  man ;  the  holmgang  is  attended 
with  difficulties,  but  the  single  combat  is  by  no 
means !'  Kormak  said,  '  I  do  not  fight  better  in 
single  combat;  I  w411  try  the  h(Slmgang,  and  in 
everything  measure  myself  with  thee.'     '  Have  thy 

*  Egil's  S.  68, 


DUELS.  249 

own  way  tlien !'  said  Bersi.  It  was  a  law  of  the  holm- 
gang  (holmgongu-log)  that  the  felkl  should  he  five 
ells  between  the  skirts,  with  holes  in  the  corners  ;  in 
these  holes  they  were  to  set  wooden  pins  (hailar) 
with  heads  npon  them,  called  tjosnur.  The  man 
who  made  the  preparations  was  to  go  to  the  tjosnur 
in  such  a  manner  that  he  could  see  tlie  sky  between 
his  legs,  and  to  hold  his  ear-lobes  while  he  repeated 
a  prayer  (formal i) — which  was  afterwards  adopted 
in  the  sacrificial  ceremony  called  tjosnu-blot.  Tliere 
should  be  three  terraces  (reitar)  made  around  the 
felld,  each  a  foot  broad,  and  outside  of  them,  four 
stakes.  These  were  called  hoslur  (hesli-stengur, 
hazel  stakes),  and  the  arena  was  said  to  be  hazelled 
(]3ar  er  vollr  hasla5r)  when  thus  prepared.  Each 
combatant  shall  have  three  shields,  and  when  these 
are  worn  out  they  shall  step  in  upon  the  felld,  in 
case  they  have  pressed  off  from  it  before.  After  this 
they  shall  defend  themselves  with  tlieir  (oflfensive) 
weapons  only.  He  who  has  been  challenged  shall 
have  the  first  stroke.  Should  either  be  wounded  so 
that  blood  falls  upon  the  felld,  then  there  is  no  obli- 
gation to  fight  longer.  Should  either  step  with  one 
foot  beyond  the  hoslur,  in  technical  language  he 
gives  way  (ferr  ban  a  hsel,  lit.  takes  to  his  heels),  but 
if  with  both,  he  flies  (rennr).  A  man  shall  hold  a 
shield  before  each  of  the  combatants.  He  who  is 
most  severely  w^ounded  shall  pay  as  holm-fine 
(holmlausn)  three  marks  of  silver.  Thorgils  held  the 
shield  for  his  brother  Ivormak,  and  Thord  Arndisson 
for  Bersi.  Bersi  struck  first  and  clove  Kormak's 
shield ;  the  latter  repaid  Bersi  in  the  same  manner, 


^50  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

and  thus  they  hewed  three  shields  to  pieces  for  each 
other.  Then  it  was  Kormak's  turn  to  strike.  He 
struck  at  Bersi,  but  the  latter  defended  himself  with 
his  sword  Hviting.  Skofnung  (Kormak's  sword)  took 
off  the  point  of  Hviting,  but  the  point  sprung  against 
Kormak's  hand  and  wounded  him  slightly  on  the 
thumb,  so  that  the  joint  opened  and  let  blood  fall 
upon  the  felld.  Thereupon  the  seconds  stepped  in 
between  and  would  not  allow  them  to  fight  longer. 
Then  said  Kormak,  ^This  is  a  trifling  victory  that 
Bersi  has  gained  by  my  mishap,  though  we  be  now 
separated.'  Bersi  demanded  the  holm-fine,  and 
Kormak  promised  that  it  should  be  paid."* 

It  is  easily  seen  in  the  foregoing  descriptions,  that 
there  was  a  great  difference  in  the  holmgangs,  the 
two  first-mentioned  being  quite  simple,  and  the  lat- 
ter one  being  attended  with  more  difiiculties.  We 
see  also  in  the  latter  that  there  was  a  distinction 
made  between  the  einvigi  and  the  holmganga,  and 
that  it  was  the  duels  of  the  latter  sort  that  were 
attended  with  such  complicated  difficulties. 

The  Einvigi  being  the  simjDlest,  was  probably  also 
the  oldest  form  of  single  combat.  It  was  gradually 
made  more  and  more  complicated,  so  that  the  com- 
batants might  have  better  opportunities  for  display- 
ing their  strength  and  skill.  The  duel,  however, 
appears  to  have  been  always  called  Holmganga, 
when  it  was  resorted  to  for  justice,  whether  it  was  of 
the  simpler  or  more  complex  kind.  Therefore,  the 
two  forementioned  holmgangs,  taken   from   Egil's 

*  Kormaks  S.  9-10. 


DUELS.  251 

Saga,  may  be  considered  to  a2:)proacli  more  nearly 
the  einvigi. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  einvigi,  in  its  more 
limited  sense,  were  doubtless  these :  that  the  space 
allotted  to  the  combatants  for  action  was  not  so 
limited,  that  they  had  liberty  to  use  more  kinds  of 
weapons  than  the  sword  alone,  and  that  they  held 
their  own  shields.  But  the  peculiarities  of  the  com- 
plicated holmgang  were :  that  the  combat  should 
take  place  upon  a  Felld  or  a  kind  of  mantle,  that 
the  combatants  were  allowed  to  use  three  shields 
apiece,  and  in  general  did  not  themselves  bear 
them,  but  each  one  had  one  of  his  friends  to  hold 
the  shield  before  him,  who  was  thence  called  his 
Shield-bearer  (skjaldsveinn),  that  they  fought  with 
swords  only  and  those  of  a  certain  length,  and  that 
they  regularly  exchanged  blows. 

Both  kinds  of  duel,  when  resorted  to  for  justice, 
were  regulated  by  certain  laws,  which  were  recited 
by  the  challenger  before  the  fight  began ;  both  con- 
veyed the  right  of  the  challenged  to  strike  the  first 
blow,  and  to  apj)oint  a  man  in  his  stead,  if  he  him- 
self should  feel  any  hesitation  to  meet  his  antag- 
onist ;  both  were  accompanied  with  the  sacrifice  of 
one  or  two  oxen,  which  the  victor  butchered ;  and 
finally,  the  holm-fine  or  ransom  of  the  vanquished 
for  a  certain  sum  fixed  beforehand  (three  marks  of 
silver,  or  more),  appears  to  have  been  common  to 
both.  Sometimes  the  challenger,  when  the  duel 
was  to  decide  the  possession  of  property,  in  order  to 
show  his  disinterestedness,  would  stake  as  much 
value  in  money  as  was  risked  by  the  party  against 
whom  he  made  his  claims. 


252  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

It  may,  doubtless,  be  considered  to  have  been  a 
departure  from  the  nsual  custom  wlien  sometimes 
each  of  the  combatants  stood  upon  liis  own  felld^ 
beyond  whicli  lie  was  not  to  move  so  much  as  a 
finger's  breadth ;  or  when  one  fonglit  against 
several,  one  after  the  other,  in  the  same  engage- 
ment. 

Another  kind  of  holmgang,  or  duel,  was  tlie  so- 
called  kerganga,  in  which  the  contending  parties 
were  inclosed  in  a  covered  tub  or  vessel,  and  there 
in  the  dark  exchanged  cuts  or  thrusts,  while  thej 
fended  with  batons  which  they  held  in  one  hand. 
This  combat  is  only  found  described  in  a  single 
place  in  the  Sagas,  and  may,  therefore,  be  regarded 
as  having  been  of  rare  occurrence.  The  account  is 
as  follows : 

"  When  the  Icelander  Thorgils,  called  Orrabein's 
Step-son,  came  on  mercantile  business  to  Lapland  in 
Svi5|)j65  (Sweden),  he  remained  during  the  winter 
with  a  rich  countryman  named  Tbrand,  who  had  a 
daughter  Sigrid.  To  her  a  certain  Randvid,  an  evil- 
disposed  fellow,  but  a  great  warrior,  had  paid  his 
addresses.  Thrand  refused  his  consent  to  the  mar- 
riage. Thereupon  Randvid  challenged  Thrand  to  a 
kind  of  holmgang  called  kerganga,  in  which  the 
parties  shall  fight  in  a  covered  vessel,  having  each 
a  club  in  his  hand.  Thrand  would  rather  fight 
than  -  give  his  daughter  to  so  wicked  a  man. 
Then  said  Thorgils  to  him,  'Thou  hast  entertained 
me  hospitably,  I  will  reward  thee  accordingly;  I 
will  fight  with  Randvid  in  thy  stead.'  Thrand 
accepted  his  ofier.     Tlirand  had  the  swx^rd  Jar5hiis- 


BERSERKSGANG.  253 

naut  (a  sword  wliicli  lie  Lad  found  in  a  subter- 
ranean passage);  Kandvid  had  a  very  slender 
baton,  an  ell  in  length,  in  his  hand.  When  all  was 
ready,  the  tub  was  covered.  Randvid  told  Thorgils 
to  thrust  the  first,  for  he  was  the  challenged.  He 
did  so,  struck  the  baton  so  that  it  broke  in  pieces, 
and  wounded  Randvid  in  the  abdomen.  The  latter 
then  said,  '  Give  me  now  the  sword,  but  do  thou 
have  the  baton,  then  shall  I  stab  thee  with  the 
sword.'  ^Methinks  now,'  said  Thorgils,  Hhat 
there  is  not  any  baton.'  Soon  afterward  Randvid 
died.  He  had  relied  upon  his  sorcery  ;  for  he  had 
killed  many  a  man  in  this  kind  of  Holmgang."* 

The  Kerganga  has  something  in  common  with 
the  Belt-dasjnng  (Beltespsenden),  still  common  in 
modern  times  among  the  peasants  in  some  of  the 
mountain  districts  of  Norway,  in  which  the  two 
contending  parties  are  inclosed  within  a  large  belt 
constructed  for  that  purpose,  and  thrust  at  each 
other  with  large  pocket-knives.  Of  this  kind  of 
duel  there  are  scarcely  any  traces  to  be  found  in 
the  ancient  Sagas. 

There  were  men  in  heathen  times,  as  has  been 
already  alluded  to  in  the  above-quoted  accounts, 
who  made  the  holmgang  a  means  of  gaining  a  sub- 
sistence, and  even  a  source  of  wealth ;  such  were 
especially  the  so-called  Berserks  (Berserkr,  ^lur, 
Berserkir),  of  whom  it  may  be  proper  here  to  speak 
more  at  length. 

The  name  of  Berserkir  was  given  to  certain  men 
who  sometimes,  especially  in  the  heat  of  battle, 

*  Floamanna  S.  14. 
12 


254  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

were  carried  away  by  a  wild  frenzy  which  for  the 
moment  redoubled  their  strength  and  rendered 
them  insensible  to  bodily  pain,  but  at  the  same 
time  deadened  all  humanity  and  reason  in  them, 
and  made  them  like  furious  wild-beasts.  In  this 
condition,  according  to  the  ancient  descriptions, 
they  distorted  their  countenances  hideously  and 
changed  color,  now  pale,  now  blue,  and  the  hair 
stood  up  on  their  heads ;  they  raved  like  dogs  or 
wolves,  and  were  as  strong  as  bears  or  bulls ;  they 
howled  like  wild-beasts,  bit  the  edge  of  their 
shields,  and  hewed  down  everything  tliat  met  them, 
often  without  distinguishing  between  friend  and  foe, 
not  even  sparing  their  own  children  or  nearest 
kindred,  if  these  happened  to  come  in  their  way. 
Neither  fire  nor  steel,  it  was  believed,  could  then 
take  effect  on  them ;  with  terror  people  saw  them 
wade  through  fire  or  cast  themselves  upon  naked 
weapons  as  if  in  pastime.  In  battle  they  went  forth 
unharnessed,  clad  in  the  bare  serh  or  shirt,  whence 
probably  their  name  was  derived.  This  mad  fury 
of  theirs  was  called  Berserksgang,  and  seems  to 
have  been  regarded  by  the  zealous  Asa-worshipers 
as  an  inspiration  from  the  War-God  Odin.  The 
Berserksgang,  however,  not  only  made  its  appear- 
ance in  time  of  battle,  but  often  also  during  severe 
labors,  when  the  men  who  were  transported  by  it 
accomplished  things  which  otherwise  seemed  im- 
practicable for  human  power.  It  was  mostly 
called  forth  when  the  passion  of  the  Berserk,  and 
more  especially  his  anger,  was  awakened.  When 
the  Berserksgang  had  spent  its  fury,  there  followed 


BEESERKSGAKa.  255 

a  great  stupor  and  weakness,  wliicli  often  lasted 
many  days. 

'  In  some,  wlio  in  other  respects  were  peaceable 
men,  the  Berserksgang  was  an  actual  disease,  that 
came  npon  them  at  certain  times  without  any 
known  cause.  It  is  said  to  have  begun  witli  a  tremb- 
ling, a  chattering  of  the  teeth,  and  a  coldness  of  the 
body,  followed  by  a  great  heat,  which  finally  passed 
over  into  a  perfect  frenzy,  during  which  the  patient 
showed  no  mercy  to  anything  whatever  that  came 
near  him.  When  the  disease  left  him,  he  again 
became  as  peaceable  as  before.  Thus  it  is  said  of 
of  the  Icelander  Thrymketill  ^'that  there  was  a 
great  defect  in  his  mind,  and  some  looked  npon  it 
as  a  disease.  It  came  over  him  every  fortnight ;  a 
trembling  seized  upon  his  body  so  that  every  tooth 
in  his  head  chattered,  although  his  friends  sought 
for  him  every  alleviation  possible.  After  this 
trembling  and  coldness  followed  a  great  heat ;  he 
then  spared  nothing  about  him,  neither  wall,  stick, 
staflP,  nor  man ;  even  if  there  was  a  fire  in  his  way 
he  would  go  right  through  it.  He  tore  ofi^  the 
table-covers  and  the  door-casings  from  the  house, 
whenever  he  could  get  at  them.  But  when  the 
frenzy  left  him  he  was  again  gentle  and  peace- 
able."'^ It  is  no  wonder  that  in  such  cases  the 
Berserksgang  was  considered  a  great  defect;  we 
find  even  that  those  who  were  possessed  by  it  made 
vows  to  the  Gods  for  the  sake  of  being  delivered 
from  the  plague. 

*  Dropl.  Son,  S.  3. 


256  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

The  Berserks  had  another  name  given  them  by 
our  forefathers,  viz.:  hamramir  menn,  and  their 
madness  was  at  liamast.  These  expressions  denote 
the  idea  of  the  ancients  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  Berserksgang.  The  Old-I^Torse  word  Jiamr  sig- 
nifies external  form,  disguise  or  semblance.  Some- 
times it  was  also  used  to  denote  the  animal-fylgia  or 
attendant  spirit,  which  was  believed  to  accompany 
every  human  being  invisibly,  as  a  kind  of  inferior 
guardian  spirit."^  The  animal-fylgia  (dyr-fylgja),  as 
before  said,  expressed,  in  a  certain  manner,  the 
character  of  the  person  whom  it  attended.  Cruel, 
piissionate  men  were  thus  believed  to  have  ferocious 
wild-beasts  as  their  fylgias.  When  their  passion 
overpowered  them  to  such  a  degree  that  it  made 
them  raving  and  deprived  them  of  the  use  of  reason, 
it  was  believed  that  the  beast  stepped  up  in  the 
place  of  tlie  man,  that  it  entered  the  outward  form 
of  the  man  but  acted  with  its  own  peculiar  strength 
and  unruliness.  It  was,  therefore,  said  of  one  thus 
,  possessed  by  the  Berserksgang,  that  he  was  not 
single  or  one-formed  (ekki  eir^hamr),  i.  ^.,  that 
another,  stronger  being  acted  in  his  human  form. 
The  superstition  in  this  matter  sometimes  went  even 
so  far  that  they  believed  the  man,  in  the  moment 
of  madness,  to  assume  the  outward  form  of  the 
animal,  as  well  as  its  internal  nature  and  its 
strength. 

Warlike  chieftains    endeavored    to    attract   the 
Berserks  to  their  armies,  in  order  to  render  them- 

*  Chap.  18. 


BERSEEKSGANG.  257 

selves  so  miicli  the  more  irresistible  and  tlie  more 
terrible  to  tlieir  enemies.  Tims  Ilarald  Harfagri  is 
said  to  have  had  Berserks  in  his  service,  which  were 
called  Wolf-hides  (ulfhe5nar),  because  they  wore 
wolf-skins  over  their  armor.  Their  station  was  in 
the  prow  of  the  King's  ship,  as  it  was  most  exposed,  in 
time  of  battle,  to  the  attacks  of  the  enemy.  The 
Berserks  conld  in  this  way  become  useful  to  those 
chieftains  who  had  men  enough  to  keep  them  in 
check  when  the  Berserksgang  came  over  them  un- 
timely. But  to  the  masses  the  Berserks  were  a 
terror,  and  they  availed  themselves  of  the  fear 
which  they  inspired — and  which  they  naturally 
strove  to  augment  by  strengthening  the  superstition 
of  their  invulnerability — in  order  to  bring  into  their 
power  whatever  they  might  wish  to  gain  from  the 
weaker.  A  challenge  to  holmgang,  for  instance, 
was  ever  ready  on  the  part  of  the  Berserk  when  his 
shameless  demands  of  property  or  of  women  were 
repulsed,  and  his  wild  frenzy,  joined  to  his  skill  in 
the  accomplishments  requisite  in  a  duel,  secured  to  . 
him  in  most  cases  a  favorable  issue  of  the  battle. 
Those  who  in  this  way  made  of  the  holmgang  a 
means  of  gain,  were  usually  called  holmgang-men 
(holmgongu-menn) ;  their  number  was  not  inconsid- 
erable in  heathen  times,  and  they  were  a  real 
plague  to  the  peaceable  countrymen,  whom  they 
took  pleasure  in  tormenting  on  all  occasions. 

Although  the  holmgang  degenerated  in  this  man- 
ner into  a  tool  of  the  basest  selfishness,  revenge,  and 
wickedness,  there  is,  at  the  same,  time  no  doubt  that 
it  was  originally  a  religious  custom,  in  which  the 


258  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

fundamental  idea  was,  that  the  Gods  would  make 
manifest  by  the  issue  of  the  battle  which  of  the  con- 
tending parties  had  justice  on  his  side.  Therefore 
it  was,  even  after  its  religious  significance  had  be- 
come a  matter  of  secondary  importance,  frequently 
attended  with  sacrifices,  prayers,  and  other  religious 
performances.  The  holmgang  was  thus  in  effect  a 
judgment  of  the  Gods,  intimately  connected  with 
the  Asa-faith,  and  among  the  Northmen  it  disap- 
peared with  that  faith,  at  least  as  a  judicial  act, 
although  among  many  kindred  nations,  especially 
among  the  Germans,  the  duel  passed  over  from  the 
heathen  into  the  Christian  code.  In  IN'orway  it  was 
the  Christian  Jarls  Eirik  and  Sveinn  Hakonssons 
who  abolished  the  holmgang  while  Christianity  was 
yet  far  from  being  generally  introduced  into  the 
country  (A.  D.  1000-1014),  while  they  at  the  same 
time  established  the  penalty  of  outlawry  against  the 
holmgang-men  and  Berserks  who  aggrieved  the 
citizens."^  In  Iceland,  where  Christianity  became 
the  established  religion  by  a  decree  of  the  people  in 
the  Al-TMng^  A.  D.  1000,  the  holmgang  was  soon 
afterward  abolished  by  the  popular  voice,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  duel  of  this  kind  between  two  Icelandic 
youths  of  distinction,  the  skalds  Gunnlaug  Orms- 
tunga  and  Skald-Eafn.  The  issue  of  the  battle  be- 
tween them  being  indecisive,  and  the  combatants 
wishing  to  renew  it,  their  influential  kinsmen  inter- 
fered and  obtained  the  prohibition  of  all  holmgangs 
by  law.f 

*  Grettis  S.  21. 

f  Gunnlaugs  OrmsttiDga  S.  11. 


ORDEALS.  259 

Another  judicial  proceeding  of  the  heathen  North- 
men, which  was  regarded  still  more  expressly  as  a 
judgment  of  the  Gods,  though  it  is  much  less  fre- 
quently mentioned  that  the  holmgang,  was  the  cus- 
tom of  going  under  a  strip  of  earth  (ganga  undir 
jar5armen)  in  order  to  clear  one's-self  from  accusa- 
tions, to  prove  the  justice  of  his  claims  or  the  truth 
of  his  assertions.  This  custom  is  called  skirsla  in  the 
Old-JSTorse — a  name  which  signifies  a  purification 
or  setting  free  from  accusations,  and  which  was 
probably  common  to  all  similar  customs.  We  find 
a  description  of  it  in  the  Laxdsela  Saga.  "  It  was  a 
mode  of  setting  one's-self  free  from  accusations  in 
those  times,  for  him  to  go  under  a  strip  of  earth  (|)at 
var  skirsla  at  ganga  skyldi  imdir  jar5armen) — a 
strip  of  green-sward  being  thrown  up  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  ends  only  rested  upon  the  ground,  while 
he  who  was  to  clear  himself  from  unfounded  accus- 
ations (sa  ma5r  er  skirsluna  skyldi  fram  flytja)  had 
to  pass  under  it.  The  heathens  considered  it  no  less 
a  case  of  conscience,  when  they  had  to  pass  through 
this  ceremony,  than  the  Christians  now  esteem  it 
when  similar  modes  of  purification  (skirslur)  are  ap- 
plied— as  for  instance,  the  ordeal  of  hot-iron  (jarn- 
bur5r).  He  who  passed  under  the  strip  of  earth  was 
acquitted  if  the  turf  did  not  fall  upon  him."  The 
narration  in  the  above-mentioned  Saga,  shows  also 
how  much  the  heathens  feared  to  submit  to  this 
means  of  deliverance  when  they  were  not  quite  cer- 
tain themselves  of  the  justice  of  their  cause.  The 
account  is  as  follows  : — A  certain  Icelander  of  dis- 
tinction, Thorstein  Surt,  being  by  an  unlucky  acci- 


260  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

dent  drowned,  with  Lis  family,  the  question  arose 
how  his  inheritance  should  be  divided  among  his 
relatives.  A  certain  Thorkel  Trefill,  whose  wife 
Gudrid  was  a  near  relative  of  Thorstein,  and  had 
besides  a  sister  among-  the  drowned,  wished  to  get 
the  whole  inheritance.  .  He  therefore  bribed  the 
only  survivor  of  the  shij) wreck,  a  certain  Gndmund, 
to  declare  that  the  persons  drowned  had  died  in  such 
an  order  that  Gudrid's  sister,  who  died  last,  became 
the  heir  of  all  the  rest.  Then  after  her  death  the 
whole  inheritance  should  fall  to  Gudrid.  But  Gud- 
mund  had  related  the  circumstances  diflerently  be- 
fore he  had  been  bribed  by  Thorkel,  and  this  being- 
rumored  abroad,  awakened  some  doubt  in  the  minds 
of  the  other  heirs,  as  to  the  legality  of  Thorkel's 
claim.  They  therefore  demanded  that  Gudmund 
should  be  subjected  to  the  above-mentioned  test  in 
order  to  confirm  the  truth  of  his  later  assertion. 
The  test  was  accordingly  decided  upon.  But  as 
Thorkel  was  conscious  that  the  whole  affair  did  not 
hang  rightly  together,  and  consequently  feared  an 
unfavorable  issue  of  the  test,  he  persuaded  two  men 
to  make  a  pretense  of  falling  out  in  a  quarrel  at  the 
moment  that  Gudmund  was  creeping  under  the  turf, 
and  to  throw  each  other  across  it  in  such  a  way  that 
the  bystanders  could  plainly  see  that  it  fell  by  their 
fault.  The  plan  was  carried  out  successfully.  Just 
as  Gudmund  had  come  under  the  strip  of  green-turf 
the  preconcerted  quarrel  began,  and  both  the  com- 
batants fell  over  the  turf,  which  naturally  tumbled 
down  upon  Gudmund.  Thorkel  now  called  upon 
the  bystanders  to  give  their  opinion  of  the  test,  and 


ORDEALS.  261 

they,  being  mostly  his  friends,  declared  with  one 
voice  that  it  would  have  turned  out  favorable  if  it 
had  not  been  disturbed.  It  was  decided  accordingly 
and  Thorkel  took  possession  of  the  inheritance.* 

This  ceremony  was  sometimes  accompanied  w^ith 
the  taking  of  oaths,  as  was  the  case,  for  instance, 
when  two  or  more  persons  sw^ore  fellowship  (fostbrieS- 
ra-lag)  with  each  other.  On  this  occasion  they 
sometimes  passed  under  three  such  strips  of  turf.f 
This  ceremony  was  also  employed  as  a  symbol  of 
humility,  in  which  case  the  first  strip  was  to  be 
raised  as  high  as  the  shoulders,  the  second  should 
reach  the  hips,  the  third  as  high  as  the  middle  of  the 
thighs. 

Another  kind  of  heathen  ordeal  may  here  be 
mentioned  in  conclusion,  which  is  spoken  of  in  a 
few  places  in  the  ancient  Eddaic  poems,  namely,  the 
ceremony  of  clearing  one's-self  from  an  accusation 
by  taking  up  stones  out  of  a  boiling  cauldron  with 
the  bare  hand,  without  injuring  the  hand.  It  is  re- 
lated of  King  Atli's  Queen,  Gu5run,  that  when  she 
w^as  accused  of  illicit  intercourse  with  one  King 
Tlijodrek,  a  guest  at  Atli's  court,  she  desired  to 
prove  her  innocence  by  the  means  here  spoken  of. 
The  ordeal  w^as  performed  with  great  solemnities. 
The  seething  cauldron  was  consecrated  by  a  certain 
King  who  was  skilled  in  such  things,  who  had  been 
sent  for  on  the  occasion,  and  seven  hundred  of  King 
Atli's  men  were  present  in  the  hall  where  the  ordeal 

«• 
*  Laxd.  S.  18. 
f  Fostbr.  S.  1. 
12* 


262  RELIGION  OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

took  place.  Gu5run  took  up  the  stones  from  the 
bottom  of  the  boiling  cauldron  with  unscathed  hand, 
and  was  acquitted.  But  Ilerkja,  Atli's  mistress  who 
had  accused  the  Queen,  burned  her  hand  when  she 
was  subjected  to  the  same  ordeal,  and  in  punishment 
for  her  falsehood  was  cast  into  a  pool  and  drowned.* 
This  whole  affair,  however,  if  indeed  there  be  any- 
thing historical  in  the  account,  took  place  among 
the  German  tribes.  The  ordeal  may  therefore  havo 
been  in  use  among  them  in  heathen  times,  and 
through  them  become  known  to  the  Northmen, 
without  having  been  employed  by  them.  JSTot  until 
Christian  times  do  we  find  with  certainty  that  the 
Northmen  adopted  this  ordeal  (ketilfang,  or  ketil- 
tak),t  which  among  the  Germans  was,  like  many 
similar  customs,  carried  over  from  heathendom  to 
Christianity. 

*  The  O.  E(lda:  Gii^riinarkv.  III. 

I  Ei5siva  Thing's  Chr.  Laws,  42  &  Norw.  Anc.  Laws,  L,  p.  389, 
Ac. 


SORCERY.  263 


CHAPTER  XXiy. 


BOECERY. 


The  belief  in  sorcery  (fjolkyngi,  gorningar)*  was 
imiversaf'  among  the  heathen  Northmen,  and  it  had 
its  origin  in  the  doctrine  itself,  which  represents  the 
magic  arts  as  an  invention  of  the  Asa-Gods. 

They  made  a  distinction  between  two  kinds  of 
magic,  viz.,  galldr  and  sei6r. 

The  name  galldr  may  be  derived  from  gala,  to 
sing,  and  thus  denoted  a  kind  of  sorcery  that  was 
performed  by  magic  songs  (gala  or  kve5a  galldra). 
Its  origin  and  dissemination  was  attributed  to  the 
^sir,  and  esj)ecially  to  Odin,  who  therefore  was 
also  called  galldrs  fo5ur — the  father  of  magic  incan- 
tations. The  men  who  cultivated  this  art  were 
called  galldra-smi5ir  or  galldra-menn.  The  Runes 
occupied  in  this  kind  of  sorcery  an  important  place 
as  magic  characters,  and  it  appears  that  the  magi- 

*  Fjolkyngi  and  fjolkunnigr — from  fjold,  a  multitude,  fjol,  much, 
many  {Germ,  viel),  and  kunna,  to  be  able,  to  know — signify  multi- 
farious knowledge,  and  much-knowing,  and  hence,  magic,  skilled 
in  magic.  Gorningar  {sing,  gorningr)  from  gora,  to  do,  to  make, 
properly  denotes  actions,  performances;  whence,  magic  arts; 
witchcraft. 


264  KELIGION   Oi''   THE   JMOliTlIMEN. 

cian,  while  singing  liis  incantations,  mostly  marked 
or  scored  cdftain  runic  characters  corresponding  to 
the  effects  which  were  desired  from  his  sorcery. 
Often  the  magic  songs  or  incantations  themselves 
were  called  runes  (runar).  It  was  believed  that  by 
such  incantations  they  could  protect  themselves 
against  arms,  imdo  chains,  heal  wounds  and  cure . 
diseases,  extinguish  fire  and  settle  storms,  gain 
woman's  love  and  wake  up  the  dead  in  order  to 
learn  of  them. the  future  *  In  the  Older  Edda  there 
are  several  poems  which  allude  to  these  things, 
though  often  in  a  manner  rather  obscure  to  ^^^5,  and 
they  even  contain  powerful  incantations  offhis  kind, 
as  well  as  instructions  concerning  the  magic  use  of 
Hunes ;  for  instance,  in  the  Eunatals-f)attr  05ins 
(Odin's  Kunic  Lay)  which  forms  the  conclusion  of 
the  Hiivamal  (Sulplime  Discourse),  Grougalldr 
(Groa's  Incantation),  Sigrdrifumal  (Sigurdrifa's 
Song),  &c.  In  the  latter  especially  there  is  reckoned 
up  a  whole  lot  of  magic  runes,  such  as  runes  of  Vic- 
tory (sigrrunar)  to  be  cut  upon  the  sword  for  victory ; 
Ale-runes  (olrunar)  to  be  carved  upon  the  drinking 
horn,  or  marked  upon  the  back  of  the  hand  and  on 
the  nails,  in  order  to  gain  woman's  love  ;  Safety  or 
Protection  rimes  (bjargrunar)  to  be  marked  inside  of 
the  hand  of  those  who  render  assistance  at  the  birth 
of  children ;  Surf-runes  (brimriinar)  to  be  carved 
upon  the  ship's  prow  and  rudder  as  a  protection 
against  the  raging  of  the  sea ;  Limb-runes  (limriinar) 

*  These  incantations  were  called  valgalklr,   probably  because 
they  were  chiefly  used  in  calling  up  those  fallen  in  battle  (valr). 


SOKCERY,  265 

to  be  made  on  bark  or  wood  to  insure  a  speedy  and 
favorable  cure ;  Speech-runes  (malrunar),  which 
were  to  confer  eloquence  at  the  assemblies ;  Sense- 
runes  (hugrunar)  which  were  to  give  understanding. 
The  poem  clearly ^shows  that  these  runes  denoted  in- 
cantations by  means  of  magic  songs  and  the  inscrib- 
ing of  magic  characters.  A  story  from  Egil's  Saga 
may  show  what  great  faith  the  people  had  in  the 
power  of  these  formulas  and  magic  signs.  Queen 
Gunhilda  wished  to  do  harm  to  Egil  alj  a  banquet, 
and  for  this  purpose  caused  poisoned  ale  to  be 
offered  ^^Jj^im.  But  Egil,  who  was  suspicious  of  the 
drink,  score*"!  runes  upon  the  horn,  then  pricked  the 
inside  of  his  hand  with  his  knife  and  marked  the  runes 
with  blood,  whereupon  the  horn  bursted  and  the 
drink  fell  on  the  floor.*  It  was,  however,  necessary 
to  be  very  careful  in  the  application  of  these  magic 
spells,  for  in  the  hands  of  a  bungler  who  knew  not 
how  to  apply  them  properly,  it  was  thought  they 
might  become  very  dangerous.  This  appears  in  an- 
other place  in  the  same  Saga.  When  Egil  was  on  a 
journey  in  IN^orway,  it  is  there  related,  he  met  with 
a  countryman's  daughter  who  was  lying  very  sick. 
Her  parents  said  they  had  aj)plied  to  a  country  lad 
of  the  neighborhood  for  help,  and  he  had  carved 
runes  in  order  to  cure  her,  but  she  had  only  become 
worse  with  them.  Egil  examined  the  bed  in  which 
she  lay,  and  found  under  the  head  a  piece  of  whale- 
bone with  runes  engraved  upon  it.  He  read  them  and 
found  that  they  were  incorrect.     He  scraped  them 

.  *  Eg.  S.  44. 


266  RELIGION   OF   TIIE   NORTHMEN. 

off,  burned  tlio  scrapings  in  the  fire  and  engraved 
neAv  runes,  which  he  laid  under  her  pillow.  Imme- 
diately the  girl  awoke  as  if  from  a  sleep,  and 
recovered  her  health."^  A  knowledge  of  incanta- 
tions and  runes  was  not,  as  a  general  thing  in 
heathen  times,  held  to  be  in  any  way  ignoble,  when 
not  applied  to  ignoble  objects. 

The  term  seiSr,  sometimes  written  sey5r,  appears 
to  be  cognate  with  sj65a,  to  seethe,  to  boil,  and  in 
this  case  would  signify  witchcraft,  or  sorcery  which 
was  performed  by  the  boiling  of  certain  objects  to 
which  superstition  had  imputed  magie  powers. 
"What  these  things  were,  is  now  no  longer  known  ; 
this  was  very  naturally  a  secret  of  the  initiated.  In 
the  performance  of  witchcraft  (at  si5a,  efla  sei5) 
there  were  a  great  many  circumstances  to  be 
attended  to.  It  was  mostly  done  at  night,  and  those 
who  practiced  it  sat  during  the  magic  performances 
upon  a  raised  platform  called  the  witches'  seat  (sei5- 
hjallr).  The  performance  was  also  connected  witli  a 
magic  song  or  incantation,  and  the  melody  of  this 
song  was  beautiful  to  hear.  In  the  Laxd^la  Saga 
a  magic  performance  of  this  kind  is  described.  Tlie 
Icelandic  chieftain  Ilrut  Herjulfsson  was  on  un- 
friendly terms  with  his  kinsman  Thorleik  Iloskulds- 
son.  The  latter  wished  to  do  some  injury  to  Hrut, 
and  for  that  purpose  employed  his  hireling  Kotkel 
and  Grima  his  wife,  both  of  whom  were  well  skilled 
in  magic.  "  Kotkel  and  Grima  went  in  the  night  to 
Ilrut's  house  and  established  a  great  sei6r.     When 

*  Eg.  S.  75. 


SOKCERY.  267 

tlie  enchanting  song  (sei51aitin)  began,  the  people  in 
the  honse  could  not  imagine  what  it  meant ;  but 
the  song  was  beautiful  to  hear.  Ilriit  alone  knew 
the  song ;  he  forbade  every  one  to  look  out  of  the 
house  during  the  night,  and  bade  all  to  keep  awake 
as  w^ell  as  tliey  could,  then  no  one  could  be  harmed 
by  it.  ISTevertheless  they  all  slept ;  Ilrut  remained 
awake  the  longest,  but  he,  too,  fell  asleep  at  last. 
Hriit's  son  Kari,  wdio  was  then  twelve  years  old,  was 
the  most  promising  of  his  children  and  well  beloved 
by  the  father.  The  sorcery  was  directed  upon  him ; 
he,  therefore,  could  not  sleep  soundly,  but  became 
more  and  more  restless.  Finally  he  sprang  up  and 
looked  out ;  he  drew  near  the  place  of  the  enchant- 
ment and  fell  down  dead."  Ilrut  afterward  avenged 
his  son's  death  by  causing  Ilotkel  and  Grima  to  be 
stoned.^ 

By  means  of  these  enchantments  called  sei5,  it 
was  believed  that  the  sorcerer  could  call  up  storms 
and  all  manner  of  injuries,  transform  himself  into 
the  likeness  of  animals,  and  enable  himself  to  fore- 
tell coming  events.  This  art  appears  to  have  been 
mostly  employed  for  doing  injury,  and  was  con- 
sidered a  far  more  ignoble  art  than  the  incantations 
(galldr).  Its  origin  was  ascribed  to  the  Goddess 
Freyja,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  mostly  practiced 
by  women,  who  were  called  witches  (sei5kona,  plur. 
sei6konur).  The  great  abhorrence  which  many, 
even  in  heathen  times,  had  for  this  kind  of  sorcery, 
is    seen  in   King    Harald    Harfagri's  proceedings 

*  Laxd.  S,  37. 


268  KELIGION   OP   THE   NORTHMEN. 

against  his  own  son  Ragnvald  Eettilbein,  whom  he 
put  to  death  because  he  meddled  with  this  kind  of 
witchcraft." 

There  are  many  kinds  of  sorcery  mentioned  in  the 
ancient  Sagas  without  being  expressly  classed  under 
either  of  the  above-named  principal  heads,  but 
which,  doubtless,  were  in  some  way  connected  with 
them  more  or  less  remotely.  Tlie  most  important 
of  them  shall  here  be  cited. 

Jugglery  (sjonhverfingar,  from  sjon,  sights  and 
hverfa,  to  turn)  was  j)erformed  by  blinding  the  eyes 
of  the  people  with  magic  arts,  so  that  certain  objects 
appeared  to  them  totally  different  from  what  they 
really  were.  This  kind  of  sorcery  is  often  spoken  of 
in  the  ancient  Sagas  as  being  employed  by  magicians 
when  they  wished  to  conceal  any  person  from  hostile 
pursuit,  or  to  frighten  his  enemies.  In  such  cases 
the  pursuers  saw,  as  it  is  stated,  an  animal,  a  coflSn, 
or  some  other  animate  or  inanimate  object,  in  the 
very  place  where  the  person  was  whom  they  were 
looking  for,  while  on  the  other  hand  they  fancied 
they  saw  troops  of  armed  men  coming  to  aid  the  one 
they  pursued,  where  there  was  nothing  in  reality 
but  a  herd  of  cows  or  sheep.  The  magician  was  also 
believed  to  have  power  to  blind  others  in  the  same 
manner  with  regard  to  himself.  But  if  the  pursuers 
either  broke  the  inanimate  thing  in  pieces  or  killed 
the  animal,  under  whose  form  they  saw  the  real  ob- 
ject, then  their  vision  cleared  uj)  and  they  saw  the 
person  in  his  true  form  lying  dead.     Certain  people, 

^  Snor.:  Ilar.  mrf.  S.  36. 


SORCERY,  269 

however,  were  believed  to  possess  such  strong 
natural  powers  that  their  eyes  remained  unblinded 
by  this  kind  of  sorcery.* 

Intimately  connected  with  the  above,  was  the 
power,  often,  mentioned  in  the  Sagas,  of  becoming 
invisible,  through  which  the  magician  by  his  arts 
could  make  himself  or  any  one  else  that  he  chose 
become  totally  invisible.  He  was  then  said  to 
"make  a  hiding-helmet"  (gera  huli5s-hjalm)  for 
himself  or  others.  This  kind  of  invisibility  is  some- 
times described  j^  being  produced  by  a  sort  of  dust, 
of  the  appearance  of  ashes,  which  the  magician 
scattered  over  and  about  those  whom  he  wished  to 
conceal. 

The  belief  in  actual  transformations,  especially 
into  the  forms  of  animals,  was  also  universal.  Such 
transformations  could  either  be  brought  upon  others 
to  their  injury — as,  for  instance,  it  is  related  of  the 
magic-skilled  Queen  Hvita,  that  in  hatred  to  her 
step-son  who  had  rejected  her  love,  she  changed  him 
into  a  bear  by  the  stroke  of  a  wolf-skin  glovef— or 
they  could  be  assumed  by  the  magician  himself,  in 
order  that  in  his  enchanted  form  he  might  pass  more 
easily  and  quickly  to  distant  places.  This  latter 
sort  of  transformation  occurs  most  frequently  in  the 
Sagas,  and  the  journey  by  this  mode  was  designated 
hamfor,  gandrei5,  or,  at  renna  gondum.ij:     On  such 

*  H5r5s  S.,  Eyrb.  S.  et  al. 

f  Hrolfs  Kraka  S.  20. 

X  Hamfor — from  hamr,  outward  form — denotes  a  journey  in  an 
assumed  form.  Gandr,  a  wolf,  a  dragon,  and  especially,  a  demon- 
animal  ;  gandreiS,  the  ride  upon  such  animals,  and  renna  gondum, 
to  travel  upon  them. 


270  KELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

occasions  the  human  body  was  believed  to  lie  as  if 
dead  or  in  an  enchanted  sleep,  while  the  soul,  in- 
closed in  the  form  of  a  whale,  a  seal,  a  falcon,  or 
any  other  animal  that  might  be  found  best  adapted 
to  the  object  of  its  magic  journey,  roamed  abroad  in 
^  other  places.     It  was  then  necessary  to  be  careful 
not  to  speak  the  sorcerer's  name  nor  wake  up  the 
sleeping  body,  for  by  doing  so  the  whole  charm  was 
destroyed  and  the  s]3irit  was  compelled  to  turn  back 
to  its  own  proper  habitation  again.     Should  there  be 
any  injury  done  to  the  assumed  farm — or,  as  it  was 
called,  hamr — it  affected  the  real  body.    Women 
who  undertook  these  enchanted  flights  in  transfor- 
mation, were  called  hamhleypur  {sing,  hamhleypa, 
a  witch,  a  lamia  ;  from  hamr,  and  hleypa,  to  run). 
Certain  women,  it  was  believed,  could  transform 
themselves  into   JS'ightmares  (mara,   or  kveldri5a), 
and  in  this  disguise  smother  people  in  their  sleep,  or 
do  them  some  other  injury  in  the  night.*     Finally, 
it  was  also  admitted  as  a  possibility  that  people 
could  mutually  exchange  their  outward  appearance 
(skipta  litum).     In  all  such  transformations,  how- 
ever, it  appears  that  they  believed  the  eyes — that 
reflection  of  the  human  soul — to  remain  unchanered. 
There  was  another  species  of  charmed  sleep  be- 
side that  above-mentioned,  in  which  sorcerer's  body 
lay  while  his  soul  wandered  abroad  in  an  assumed 
form,  which  it  was  believed  the  magicians  could 
bring  upon  others  by  pricking  them  with  a  so-called 
soporific  thorn  (svefn-J)orn).     This  enchanted  sleep, 

*  The  punishment  for  such  women  is  established  in  the  Anc- 
Laws  of  Norway,  L,  p.  403. 


SOECEEY.  271 

it  was  thought,  could  not  be  released  so  long  as  the 
thorn  remained  lying  on  the  body  of  the  spell- 
bound person,  or  clinging  to  his  clothes. 

Some  magicians  were  believed  to  have  so  great 
power  in  their  eyes  that  by  the  mere  glance  they 
could  turn  the  edge  of  a  sword  in  battle,  and  also 
with  an  eye-glance  make  the  earth  tremble  and 
be  convulsed,  scorch  the  grass,  and  frighten  their 
enemies  out  of  their  wits,  so  that  they  would  run 
like  hunted  beasts,  and  even  become  changed  into 
brutes  (in  the  Old-Norse,  ver5a  at  gjallti,  become 
swine).  In  order  to  make  this  last-named  sorcery 
very  effectual,  it  was  necessary  to  throw  their  bodies 
into  the  most  unnatural  positions,  so  that  their 
appearance  should  be  the  more  frightful ;  and  their 
success  then  depended  very  much  on  whether  the 
person  who  practiced  the  sorcery  got  to  see  his  an- 
tagonist first;  if  the  contrary  happened,  then  the 
charm  lost  all  power.  In  the  Yatnsdcela  Saga,  an 
Icelandic  sorceress  named  Ljot  is  described  in  an 
undertaking  of  this  kind.  Her  son  Hrolleif  had 
killed  the  chieftain  Ino;emund  of  Hof.  The  sons  of 
Ingemund,  wishing  to  avenge  their  father's  death, 
set  out  for  Ljot's  abode  with  that  intention.  They 
arrived  just  as  the  witch  was  busied  in  preparing  a 
sacrifice  for  the  protection  of  her  son,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Hrolleif  as  he  was  leaving  the 
dwelling  house  to  go  into  the  house  of  sacrifice. 
While  they  were  making  ready  to  slay  him,  one  of 
their  company  became  aware  of  Ljot,  whom  he  saw 
coming  toward  them  in  the  most  hideous  form.  She 
had  thrown  one  foot  over  her  head  and  went  back- 


272  RELIGION   OF   THE  NORTHMEN. 

wards  upon  one  hand  and  foot,  with  her  face  stick- 
out  behind  ;  her  eyes  were  hideous  and  demon-like. 
This  api^earance  did  not,  however,  prevent  the 
brothers  from  putting  Hrolley  to  death.  Ljot  her- 
self was  immediately  seized.  She  now  confessed 
that  it  had  been  her  intention  to  go  in  this  manner 
over  the  whole  neighborhood  and  to  drive  the  sons 
of  Ingemund  out  of  their  senses,  so  that  they  vrould 
run  crazy  about  the  roads  with  the  wild-beasts ;  and 
this  would  have  happened  if  she  had  only  seen  them 
before  they  got  sight  of  her ;  but  now  their  attendant 
spirit  had  been  too  powerful  for  her.  They  put  Ljot 
to  death.*  When  the  Icelandic  chieftain  Olaf  Pa 
surprised  the  dangerous  sorcerer  Stigandi  sleeping, 
he  caused  a  skin  to  be  drawn  over  his  head  in  order 
that  his  sight,  when  he  awoke,  should  do  no  harm  to 
any  one.  But  there  happened  to  be  a  little  hole  in 
the  skin,  and  Stigandi  cast  his  eyes  out  through  this 
over  a  beautiful,  grassy  mountain-slope  which  was 
opposite.  Instantly  it  appeared  as  though  a  whirl- 
wind had  broken  loose  upon  this  spot  and  turned  the 
earth  up-side-down  in  such  a  manner  that  from  that 
time  there  was  never  any  more  grass  grew  upon  it. 
Stigandi  was  stoned  to  death  by  Olaf  and  his  men.f 
The  same  precaution  as  that  here  mentioned  was 
employed  by  the  renowned  sorceress  Gunhilda, 
afterward  the  queen  of  Eirik  Blood-axe,  wlien  she 
betrayed  the  two  Finns  who  had  instructed  her  in 
magic   arts,  and  whose   sight,  it  was  said,  was  so 

*  Vatnsd.  S.  26  ;  compare  GiillJ»6ri3  Saga. 
f  Laxd.  S.  38. 


SORCERT.  273 

sharp  when  they  were  angry  that  the  earth  was  torn 
up  by  it,  and  any  living  being  that  met  them  fell 
down  dead.  She  drew  two  seal-skins  over  their 
heads  and  then  let  Kijig  Eirik's  men  kill  them.* 

Enchanted  food  and  drink  are  mentioned  in 
many  places  both  in  the  old  Eddaic  poems  and  in 
the  Sagas.  It  was  believed  that,  by  means  of  such 
food  or  drink,  the  dispositions  of  men  could  be 
changed,  courage  and  ferocity,  awakened,  or  forget- 
fulness  induced.  The  flesh,  and  especially  the 
heart  and  blood  of  certain  strong  and  wild  animals 
— wolves,  for  instance — when  used  as  food,  were  re- 
garded as  a  means  of  making  men  bold  and  cruel. 
To  obtain  a  charmed  drink,  they  mingled  together  a 
variety  of  things  which  superstition  had  endowed 
with  magic  powers;  runes  were  also  employed — 
sometimes  read  as  magic  formulas  over  the  potion, 
sometimes  carved  upon  wood  or  bone  and  cast  into 
it.  The  term  enchanted  drink  was  also  frequently 
understood  to  mean  a  poisonous  drink. 

The  belief  in  enchanted  clothing  and  armor  was 
likewise  very  prevalent.  Clothes  were  enchanted, 
either  to  secure  the  wearer  against  wounds  or  to 
bring  injury  or  death  upon  him.  It  is  said  of  the 
chieftain  Tliorer  Hund,  that  he  had  several  reindeer 
frocks  (hreinbjalfar)  made  for  himself  by  the  Finns, 
which  were  charmed  in  such  a  manner  that  no 
weapon  could  take  eSect  upon  them ;  and  in  the 
battle  by  Stiklastad  one  of  these  frocks  protected 
him  against  the  sword  of  Olaf  the  Saint,  when  the 

■^  Saor.:  liar.  Ildrf.  S.  34. 


274  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

king  liewed  him  right  over  the  shoulders.  ''The 
sworcl  did  not  bite ;  it  seemed  only  to  raise  the  dust 
on  the  reindeer  frock."-  The  Orkneian  Jarl  Harald 
Ilakonsson  died,  it  is  stated,  ty  dressing  himself  in 
charmed  clothing  made  by  his  own  mother  and  her 
sister,  but  which  was  intended  for  his  step-brother 
Pal  Jarl.f  Swords  were  sometimes  so  charmed, 
say  the  accounts,  that  success  in  battle  always  fol- 
lowed the  men  who  wielded  them,  and  the 
wounds  they  made  could  not  be  healed  until 
they  were  touched  by  a  so-called  life-stone  (lifsteinn), 
which  accompanied  the  sword.  In  the  use  of  this 
kind  of  charmed  swords,  there  were  many  things  to 
be  observed  when  they  were  to  have  the  proper 
effect.  Thus,  for  example,  the  renowned  sword 
Skofniing,  which  was  taken  out  of  Hrolf  Kraki's 
burial  mound,  was  not  to  be  drawn  in  the  presence 
of  woman,  nor  so  that  the  sun  could  shine  upon  the 
hilt,  or  it  w^ould  lose  somewhat  of  its  peculiar 
virtue.:]: 

Magic-skilled  women  used  sometimes  to  pass  their 
hands  over  the  bodies  of  persons  going  to  battle,  in 
order  to  discover  by  this  menns  what  place  upon 
them  was  most  liable  to  be  wounded.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  they  could  feel  a  protuberance  in  every 
such  place,  and  then  a  special  protective  remedy 
was  applied  to  the  spot.  If  no  sucli  protuberance 
w\as  perceived,  it  was  thought,  accordingly,  that  no 
danger  was  to  be  apprehended. 

*  Snor. :  01.  Ilel.  S.  20-i,  210. 
f  Orkney.  S.  r-  Ml. 
t  Laxd.  S.  57. 


SORCERY.  275 

•A  peculiar  kind  of  sorcery  was  the  so-called  sit- 
ting-out (litiseta,  at  sitja  uti),  in  wliicli  the  magician 
sat  out  at  night  under  the  open  sky,  and  by  certain 
magic  performances  now  no  longer  known,  perhaps 
most  frequently  by  incantations  (galldur),  was  be- 
lieved to  call  up  evil  spirits  (vekja  upp  troll)  or 
awaken  the  dead  in  order  to  consult  them.     It  was 
especially  to  inquire  into  the  future  that  this  kind 
of  sorcery  was  resorted  to.     An  invocation  of  the 
dead,  not  just  for  this  object,  but  which  was  to  clear, 
up  an  affair  concerning  which  there  was  some  doUbt 
of  gaining  light  by  natural  means,  is  described  in 
the  Fsereyinga  Saga.     The  crafty  Thrond  of  Gata, 
an  inhabitant  of  the  Faroes,  who  it  appears  had 
been  forced  to  accept  baptism  although  he  was  still 
a  rank  heathen  at  heart,  wished  to  find  out  how  the 
renowned  hero  Sigmund  Brestarsson  had  met  with 
his  death;  whether  he   had  been  drowned  while 
attempting  with  two  others  to  escape  by  swimming 
from  Thrond's  pursuit,  or  whether  he  had  reached 
the  land  and  was  killed  there.     For  this  purpose  he 
had  a  great  fire  kindled  in  the  presence  of  a  large 
concourse  of  people,  and  set  up  four  panels  of  lattice 
work  in  a  square  around  the  fire,  and  traced  nine 
sentences  (reitar)  upon  the  earthen  floor  around  the 
in  closure.     He  then  seated  himself  upon   a   chair 
between  the  fire  and  the  railing,  and  forbade  the 
bystanders  to  speak.     After  he   had  been  sitting 
thus  a  long  time,  the  ghosts  of  Sigmund's  two  com- 
panions, who  were  dripping  wet,  made  their  aj)pear- 
ance,  went  up  to  the  fire  and  warmed  themselves, 
and  then  passed  out  again.    At  length  came  Sig- 


276  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTIIIIEN. 

mimd  himself,  bloody  and  bearing  bis  bead  in  bis 
band ;  be  stood  a  good  wbile  npon  tbe  floor  and 
tben  left  tbe  room.  Tbrond  now  rose  up  groaning 
witb  fatigue,  and  declared  bimself  to  be  convinced 
by  tbe  vision  tbat  Sigmund's  companions  were 
drowned,  but  tbat  be  bimself  bad  reacbed  tbe  land 
and  tbere  met  witb  a  violent  deatb." 

It  was  believed  tbat  sorcerers  could  obtain  great 
assistance  from  certain  animals.  Tbus  we  find  fre- 
j^uent  mention  of  tbe  art  of  interpreting  tbe  voice  of 
birds,  as  a  means  of  imj)ortant  discoveries.  Tlie 
crow  was  in  tbis  respect  a  bird  of  great  significance, 
and  tbat  tbe  raven  was  so,  is  to  be  inferred  from  tbe 
my  til  of  Odin's  news-bringing  ravens.  Tbe  cat  is 
also  mentioned  as  an  animal  spe^ally  loved  by. 
sorcerers.  Tbe  magic-skilled  Icelander  Tborolf 
Skeggi,  of  Yatnsdal,  is  said  to  bave  bad  no  less  tlian 
twenty  large  black  cats,  tbat  bravely  defended  tbeir 
master  wlien  be  was  attacked  by  tbe  Sons  of  Inge- 
mund  of  Ilof,  and  gave  eigbteen  men  enough  to 
do.t 

Although  people  were  not  wanting  among  the 
Northmen  who,  by  a  more  than  ordinary  knowledge 
of  the  powers  of  naturie,  made  their  superstitious 
contemporaries  believe  tbat  they  were  skilled  in 
magic,  yet  the  Finns  were  even  in  a  remote 
antiquity  looked  upon  as  the  chief  masters  in 
sorcery,  with  whom  even  tbe  I^Torsemen,  who 
wished  to  perfect  themselves  more  fully  in  the  art, 

*  Foereyfnga  S.  40. 
t  Vatnsd.  S.  26. 


SORCERY.  277 

weift  formally  to  school.  The  famous  Queen  Gun. 
hilda,  who  was  sent  in  her  youth  to  Finnmark  in 
order  to  learn  witchcraft,  may  serve  as  an  instance. 
Finns  skilled  in  magic  were  often  sent  for  and  con- 
sulted, when  any  important  magic  operation  was  to 
be  performed.  They  were  regarded  as  especially 
capable  of  undertaking  the  so-called  hamfarir,  or 
magic  flights  in  transformation. 

In  heathen  times  the  magicians  were  often  prose- 
cuted, and  even  tried  before  the  courts,  and  punish-: 
ed  by  a  sentence  of  law;  but  this  was  not  actually 
done  because  they  practiced  sorcery,  but  because  it 
was  believed  that  they  conld  be  convicted  of  having 
done  harm  with  their  sorcery.  It  is  spoken  of  as  a 
universal  custom  to  stone  evil-disposed  sorcerers  and 
witches. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  Christianity  should 
be  able  to  tear  out  at  once  the  deep-rooted  faith  of 
the  ]J^orthmen  in  Sorcery,  especially  when  not  only 
tlie  first  Christian  teachers,  but  also  the  clergy 
throughout  all  the  Middle  Ages,  were  as  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  existence  of  sorcery  as  the  heathens 
were.  Tlie  only  diff'erence  between  them  was,  that 
the  teachers  of  Christianity  regarded  it  as  an 
abomination,  a  work  of  the  devil,  which  they  should 
strive  to  check,  even  by  application  of  the  severest 
measures  ;  while  the  Asa-faith,  on  the  contrary,  repre- 
sented it  to  be  a  knowledge  imparted  to  man  by  the 
Gods  themselves,  a  knowledge,  therefore,  which,  by 
its  abuse  only,  could  deserve  punishment.  Of  the 
belief  of  the  Christian  teachers  in  sorcery,  and  their 
zeal  to  eradicate  it,  there  is  abundant  evidence 
13 


278  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

furnislied  by  the  penal  decrees  on  that  subject 
which  are  found  in  the  ancient  Norwegian  churcli 
laws.  But  how  strictly  soever  the  laws  of  the 
church  may  have  forbidden  all  practice  of  sorcery, 
there  were  still  many  Northmen  w^ho  continued,  for 
a  long  time  after  the  fall  of  the  Asa-faith,  to  look 
upon  wdtchcraft  as  an  art  which  it  was  profitable  to 
cultivate. 


EXPLORING  THE  FUTURE.  279 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

EXPLORING  THE   FUTURE;   DIVINATION. 

The  investigation  of  the  Future  was  most  inti- 
mately connected  with  Sorcery. 

The  heathen  mrthmen  believed  that  there  were 
means  by  which  man  could  prevail  on  the  Gods  to 
make  known  their  will,  or  to  reveal  things  which 
otherwise,  in  the  order  of  Nature,  must  remain  hid- 
den from  the  human  understanding.  This  kind  of 
inquiry  was  named,  sometimes,  fr6tt— an  interroo-a- 
tion,  investigation-(from  fretta,  to  ask),  and  to  un- 
dertake It  was  ''at  ganga  til  frettar,"  to  consult  the 
oracle ;  and  sometimes  it  was  termed  spa,  or  plural, 
spar—prophecy,  divination— and  to  make  applica- 
tion to  it  was  "at  spyrja  spa,"  to  inquire  out  the 
prophecy-or  "at  ly5a  spam,"  to  listen  to  prophe- 
cies. 

Concerning  the  mode  in  which  this  kind  of 
mqmry  into  the  Future  took  place,  our  old  manu- 
scripts give  no  special  information.  It  appears  to 
have  been  most  usual  for  the  explorer  of  the  Future, 
while  invoking  or  sacrificing  to  a  deity,  either  to 
demand  as  a  response  some  signal  which  he  left  to 
the  God  himself  to  decide  upon,  and  which  ho 


280  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

recognized  in  any  remarkable  event  occurring  at 
the  time,  and  then  interpreted  in  such  a  mode  as 
appeared  most  probable  according  to  the  circum- 
stances, or  else  to  decide  upon  the  signal  himself 
by  which  the  divinity  was  to  answer  him. 

We  have  seen  that  the  zealous  Asa-worshiper  Ila- 
kon  Jarl  made  use  of  the  former  mode  when  he 
sacrificed  to  Odin  before  his  bold  march  through 
Gothland,  and  he  interpreted  it  as  a  promise  from 
the  God  of  success  in  the  expedition,  when  two 
ravens  during  the  sacrifice  came  flying  along  and 
screaming  loudly.  When  the  Icelandic  chieftain 
Thorkel  the  Tall  invoked  the  God  Frey  for  ven- 
geance upon  his  enemy  Yiga-Glum,  and  at  the  same 
time  demanded  a  signal  that  the  God  had  heard  his 
prayer,  he  regarded  it  as  a  favorable  response  of 
Frey  when  the  ox,  which  he  had  led*  out  as  an  ofi'er- 
ing,  immediately  fell  with  loud  bellowing  upon  the 
ground  and  died.*  The  latter  mode  we  find  applied 
by  the  emigrating  IsTorthmen,  in  choosing  their 
places  of  residence  in  foreign  lands  by  direction  of 
the  Sacred  Columns.  In  this  they  believed  that  the 
God,  whom  they  invoked  beforehand,  directed  the 
columns  to  a  place  where  a  prosperous  abode  was 
vouchsafed  to  them  and  their  descendants. 

An  important  ceremony  of  measurement  which 
was  employed  in  building  a  new  house,  in  order  to 
find  out  w^hat  fortune  was  in  store  in  it  for  its  future 
occupants,  was  also  of  the  same  character.  This 
ceremony  was  performed  by  measuring  the  founda- 

^  Viga-Gl.  S.  0. 


EXPLOKING  THE  FUTURE.  281 

tions  repeatedly — say  three  times — and  very  care- 
fully noting  whether  there  was  any  difference  in 
dimensions  between  the  first  and  last  measurement. 
If  the  last  was  greatest  they  believed  it  to  forbode 
increasing  prosperity  to  the  occupant  of  the  house  ; 
but  if  the  contrary  happened,  then  they  believed  it 
would  always  go  down-hill  with  him. 

The  second  above-mentioned  mode  of  consulting 
the  Gods  appears  to  have  been  the  most  generally 
employed.  Two  kinds  of  exploration  of  the  future 
are  mentioned  in  the  Sagas,  which  may  be  referred 
to  this  class,  namely,  by  means  of  sacred  leaves  or 
slips  (blotspann)  and  by  prophetic  lots  (hlotar  or 
hlutar),  both,  doubtless,  a  species  of  lot-casting  in 
principle,  but  practiced  by  different  modes. 

To  consult  the  Gods  by  the  first-named  species  of 
oracle  was  "  at  fella  blotspann,"  i,  e.,  to  drop  the 
sacred  leaves.  Although  this  is  very  often  men- 
tioned in  the  old  manuscripts,  yet  the  details  are  no- 
where described.  We  must,  therefore,  be  content 
with  probable  conjectures  to  which  the  ancient 
name,  compared  with  descriptions  of  similar  modes 
of  consulting  the  Gods  among  people  nearly  related 
to  the  JSTorthmen,  may  lead  us. 

The  expression  "  at  fella  blotspann  "  seems  to  im- 
ply that  the  exploration  was  effected  by  the  casting 
of  consecrated  slips  or  pieces  of  wood. 

"We  find  the  casting  of  lots  (Sortilegium,  of  the  Ro- 
mans) employed  as  a  means  of  divination  among 
many  of  the  nations  of  antiquity — the  Greeks, 
Romans,  Scythians,  Alani,  Germans,  and  others. 
Of  the  mode  of  foretelling  events  by  casting  lots,  as 


282  RELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

employed  by  tlie  Germans,  the  near  kinsmen  of  the 
Northmen,  we  find  the  following  account  by  Taci- 
tus :  "  They  (the  Germans)  pay  strict  attention  to 
omens  and  the  casting  of  lots  (sortes).  The  usual 
mode  of  casting  lots  (sortium  consuetudo)  is  simple. 
A  bough  cat  from  a  fruit-tree  is  divided  into  small 
slips  (surculos),  which  are  marked,  each  with  its 
sign,  and  cast  out  at  random  upon  a  white  cloth. 
Thereupon  the  State  Priest,  if  the  consultation  be 
public,  or  the  master  of  the  household  himself,  if  it 
be  private,  makes  a  prayer  to  the  Gods,  and,  with 
eyes  uplifted  toward  heaven,  takes  up  every  twig 
three  times,  and  explains  them  according  to  the 
marks  set  beforehand  upon  them.""  Of  the  Alani 
it  is  said  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  "  They  explore 
the  future  by  a  remarkable  method.  They  collect 
osier  twigs  (virgas  vimineas)  which  are  tolerably 
straight,  scatter  them  about  for  a  certain  time,  while 
they  sing  mysterious  incantations,  and  then  they 
know  with  certainty  what  they  8ignify."f  By  this 
is  meant,  no  doubt,  that  after  thus  scattering  the 
twigs  about,  they  foretold  the  future  by  the  relative 
positions  in  which  they  settled. 

If  we  turn  to  these  descriptions  for  explanation  of 
the  old  Norse  expression,  "  at  fella  blotspann,"  it 
will  appear  highly  probable  that  this  expression  de- 
notes a  proj^hetic  lot-casting  precisely  similar  to 
that  employed  by  the  Germans  and  Alani.  Besides, 
if  we  take  into  consideration  the  use  which  the  hea- 
then Northmen  made  of  runes,  as  well  as  the  nature 

*  Tacitus:  Germ.  c.  10. 
f  Ammian.,  lib.  31,  c.  2. 


DIVINATION.  .      283 

of  these  characters,  this  supposition  is  strengthened, 
and  even  passes  over  into  a  certainty. 

Of  the  employment  of  runes  in  sorcery  as  magic 
characters,  we  have  before  spoken  ;  that  they  were 
also  applied  to  the  art  of  divination,  so  nearly  allied 
to  sorcery,   can  hardly  be  doubted.     Each  runic 
character  has  a  name  denoting  some  object  of  im- 
portance in  life,  something  to  be  desired  or  feared, 
concerning  which  it  might,  therefore,  be  desirable  to 
consult  the  Gods.     Thus,  for  instance,  the  name  of 
the  character  A  is  ar,  a  year,  fruitfulness ;  I  is  is, 
ice ;  F  is  fe,  cattle,  money,  (pecus,  pecimia),  &c. 
Moreover,  all  runes  are  formed  by  a  combination  of 
right  lines,  whence  no  doubt  their  name  stafir,  sing., 
stafr,  a  staff,  stave.     Thus,  when  a  number  of  straight 
sticks  were  thrown  up,  they  might  very  easily  fall 
in  such  relative  positions  toward  one  another,  as  to 
form   runic   characters,    and    from  the   significant 
names  of  these  figures  a  prophecy  could  be  traced 
out.      ISiO   doubt   an   improvement  was  afterward 
made  in  the  matter,  by  carving  a  rune  upon  each  of 
the    sticks.      By    scattering   them   and    afterward 
either  blindly  picking  them  up  one  by  one,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Germans,  or  by  viewing  their  rela- 
tive positions  as  a  whole,  it  was  easy  to  fabricate 
a  prophecy  quite  satisfactory  to  the  superstition  of 
the  times. 

Such  was,  beyond  all  doubt,  the  nature  of  the 
divination  by  blotspann  employed  by  the  heathen 
Northmen.  That  they  also  invoked  the  Gods 
thereby,  and  sang  magic  songs  and  incantations, 
like  the  Germans  and  Alani,  is  highly  probable. 


284  RELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

The  second  species  of  exj)loring  tlie  future,  i.  e.^ 
by  means  of  divination-lots^  is  found  more  minutely 
described  in  tlie  Sagas.  In  the  tliree  most  detailed 
accounts  we  have  of  the  invasion  of  Norway  by  the 
Jomsburg  sea-rovers,  it  is  related  how  Ilakon  Jarl, 
in  order  to  gain  over  the  Skald  Einar,  afterward 
surnamed  Skalaglam,  presented  to  him  a  costly 
divining-lalance,  with  the  accompanying  weights. 
The  best  descriptions  of  this  divining  apparatus 
are  in  this  wise :  "  Then  the  Jarl  (Hakon)  takes  a 
good  balance-scale  (skalir  g65ar)  which  he  had  in 
his  possession.  It  was  made  of  burnished  silver  and 
was  all  gilt.  With  it  there  were  two  weights  (met), 
the  one  of  gold,  the  other  of  silver,  ujDon  each  of 
which  there  was  a  figure  wrought  (a  human  figure, 
according  to  the  other  two  accounts).  They  were 
called  hlotar  (by  the  others,  hlutar)  and  were  in 
reality  lot-casting  weights  (lilutir;  Zatin^  sortes) 
such  as  people  of  that  time  used  to  have.  A  great 
power  lay  hidden  in  them,  and  on  all  occasions 
which  were  deemed  by  the  Jarl  to  be  of  importance, 
he  made  use  of  these  weights.  He  would  then  place 
them  in  the  scales,  appointing  at  the  same  time 
what  each  one  was  to  decide  for  him ;  and  always 
when  the  throwing  turned  out  well,  and  the  one 
came  up  that  he  desired,  the  weight  indicating  his 
choice  was  restless  in  the  scale  and  turned  gently 
about  in  it  so  as  to  give  out  a  clinking  sound.  This 
treasure  the  Jarl  gives  to  Einar,  and  Einar  is  greatly 
rejoiced  therewith."* 

*  Jomsvikinga  S.  42  iu  Fornra.  S.  XI.  p.  128. 


DIVINATION.  285 

This  sketch,  although  not  in  every  way  satisfac- 
tory, gives  an  idea  of  the  divination-weights  of  the 
heathen  JSTorthmen.      We   may   imagine   the  two- 
weights   to  have   been    precisely   equal,   and    the 
balance  upon  which  they  were  thrown  very  deli- 
cate and  easily  turned.     The  one  was  made  to  de- 
note what  the  person  wished  for,  the  other,  what 
he  did  not  wish.     It  was  probably  imagined  that 
that  would  happen  which  the  weight  that  rose  up  in 
the  balance  indicated ;  and  which  of  the  weights 
this  might  be  depended  entirely  upon  chance.      The 
human  figure,  said  to  have  been  stamped  upon  the 
weights,  probably  denoted  the  divinity  from  whom 
they  demanded  a  response  by  the  casting  of  the  lots. 
The  special  power  that  lay  in  Hakon  Jarl's  divin- 
ing-weights,  appears  to  have  been   chiefly  in  the 
sound  which  it  was  imagined  was  to  be  heard  in 
the  scales  when  the  good  weight  came  uo. 

They   also   sought  information    concerning    the 
future  from  men  who,  by  being  gifted  with  superior 
powers— and  this   mostly   by  the    aid    of   magic 
means—were  believed  to  be  able  to  penetrate  the  " 
hidden  decrees  of  Fate. 

Seers  (menu  framsynir,  menu  forspair)  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  our  ancient  Sagas.  Their  gift 
of  foreseeing  and  foretelling  certain  things  was 
usually  regarded  as  inborn.  What  brought  them 
into  repute  was,  doubtless,  in  most  cases,  a  keen  un- 
derstanding, a  more  than  ordinary  knowledge  of 
nature,  a  deeper  insight  into  human  character,  and 
an  attentive  observance  of  past  and  present  events 
in  their  causes  and  effects.  More  was  not  required 
13* 


286  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

ill  those  unenliglitcned  times  to  bring  one  into  notice 
as  a  prophet  or  prophetess,  especially  when  a  certain 
natural  or  assumed  mysteriousness,  and  a  wise  ap- 
plication of  circumstances,  were  added.  Such  seers 
were  believed  to  have  a  presentiment  of  coming 
events  of  importance,  and  to  be  able  to  see  by  one's 
features  and  manners  what  his  fate  would  be.  That 
both  these  species  of  prophecy  should  often  hit  the 
mark  is  not  so  wonderful,  when  we  consider  on  one 
hand  the  intimate  relation  between  the  Past  and 
Future,  and  on  the  other,  how  strongly  the  character 
of  a  people  of  inferior  cultivation  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  their  features,  and  also  how  common  it  is 
that  a  man's  disposition  shapes  his  good  or  evil 
destiny.  Whatever  might  be  wanting  in  the  accu- 
racy of  the  supposed  prophecies,  was  filled  out  by  the 
superstition  of  the  age,  which  often,  when  the  event 
had  actually  happened,  involuntarily  adapted  to  it 
the  words  with  which  the  seer  might  be  supposed  to 
have  announced  it  beforehand.  His  fame  thus  grew 
sometimes  without  his  own  cooperation;  his  con- 
temporaries listened  to  every  expression  that  fell 
from  his  lips,  as  to  the  response  of  an  oracle,  and 
After-ages  ascribed  to  him  prophecies  which  in  all 
probability  never  came  from  his  lips. 

Many  of  the  seers  of  lieathen  times  believed,  pro- 
bably by  the  aid  of  a  certain  enthusiasm,  that  they 
actually  received  higher  revelations,  but  there  were 
also  many,  doubtless,  who  were  fully  conscious  of  the 
true  state  of  the  case  with  their  gifts  of  prophecy. 
It  is,  however,  easy  to  imagine  that  the  latter  seldom 
opposed  the  superstition  concerning  their  superna- 


DIVINATION.  287 

tural  powers,  for  tlie  distinction  which  the  fame  of 
their  prophetic  faculty  conferred  upon  them  was  too 
alhiring,  and  they  were  also  influenced  by  baser 
motives.  A  good  prophecy  was  mostly  well  re- 
warded, while  a  prophecy  of  evil  was  a  grand 
medium  for  striking  terror  where  revenge  and  de- 
light in  mischief  could  not  by  any  better  means  be 
appeased. 

Those  who  made  a  source  of  gain  of  their  sup- 
posed gift  of  prophecy,  willingly  took  refuge  in  the 
magic  arts  in  order  to  increase  their  fame.  In- 
cantations, witchcraft,  transformations,  nocturnal 
sittings,  and  similar  magic  performances  were  the 
means  by  which  they  made  the  people,  and  perhaps 
themselves,  believe  that  they  received  their  revela- 
tions. All  such  arts  were  believed  to  cause  no 
trifling  exertions  to  the  one  who  practiced  them,  and 
they  had,  therefore,  to  be  well  jraid  for.  The  Finns, 
both  men  and  women,  were  also  regarded  as  espe- 
cially skilled  in  penetrating  the  future. 

Of  those  among  the  ISTorthmen  of  Antiquity  who 
made  a  business  of  foretelling  the  future,  the  most 
remarkable  were  the  so-called  Yalas  (Yala  or 
Y'6\y^,  jplur.  Yolvur),  or  the  Spse- wives  (Spakonur), 
on  account  of  the  extraordinary  lionor  they  univer- 
sally enjoyed.  The  Yalas  are  mentioned  in  the 
poems  of  the  Older  Edda,  and  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  poems  is  ascribed  to  such  a  prophetess, 
whence  its  name — Yoluspii,  the  Prophecy  of  the 
Yala — is  derived.  It  appears  that  they  were  some- 
times called  ISTorns,  and  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
superior,  semi-godlike  beings,  as  bodily  revelations 


288  llELIGION    OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

of  the  subordinate  Norns,  which,  according  to  the 
Asa-faith,  were  sent  out  from  the  three  great  God- 
desses of  Fate  at  Urdar's  Fount,  to  measure  out  the 
life  of  individual  men  and  appoint  their  fate,  which 
they  consequently  were  able  to  announce  before- 
hand. But  so  high  a  conception  of  the  Norns  was 
hardly  maintained  during  the  heathen  ages,  espe- 
cially in  the  latter  years ;  yet  they  were  always 
looked  upon  as  most  remarkable  beings,  who  at 
least  were  considered  to  be  under  the  special  pro- 
tection of  the  great  JSTorns,  and  to  receive  revela- 
tions from  them.  Men,  therefore,  not  only  listened 
with  eagerness  to  their  prophecies,  but  they  also 
rejoiced  at  their  good  wishes  and  feared  their 
curses ;  for  to  both  had  been  ascribed  extraordinary 
power.  For  this  reason  people  took  all  possible 
pains  to  make  the  Yala,  whom  they  wished  to  con- 
sult, incline  propitiously  towards  them  and  their 
house.  The  Yala  wandered  by  invitation  from 
house  to  house,  and  everywhere  people  vied  with 
each  other  in  doing  honor  to  her  while  she  staid,  and. 
in  bestowing  rich  gifts  upon  her  at  her  departure 
Her  dress  and  address  were  calculated  to  attract 
attention.  A  seat  of  distinction  was  ready  for  her 
wherever  she  came,  and  magic  performances,  such 
as  sei5r  and  galldr,  were  practiced  as  preliminary 
measures  for  o]3ening  her  prophetic  vision. 

The  Saga  of  Eirik  the  Ked  contains  a  very  de- 
tailed account  of  a  Yala  and  her  proceedings, 
during  her  visit  to  Thorkel,  a  distinguished  chieftain 
among  the  Norwegian  settlers  of  Greenland  in  the 
later  heathen  times.     ''At  that  time,"  it  is  stated, 


DIVINATION.  289 

'•' there  was  a  great  famine  in  Greenland.  Those 
who  had  gone  to  the  wild  districts  (hunting  and 
fishing),  had  met  with  little  success,  on  account  of 
storms  and  bad  roads.  Some  had  never  returned. 
There  was  a  woman  living  in  the  settlement,  whose 
name  was  Tliorbjorg;  she  was  a  Spae-wife,  and  was 
called  the  little  Yala  or  Prophetess  (litil-volva). 
She  had  had  nine  sisters,  of  whom  she  was  the  only 
survivor.  Thorbjorg  was  in  the  habit  of  going 
round  to  the  festivals,  and  she  was  invited  chiefly 
by  those  who  wished  to  learn  their  fate  and  the 
coming  seasons.  As  Thorkel  was  the  best  man  of 
the  settlement,  it  seemed  to  be  incumbent  upon  him 
to  gain  some  information  when  the  prevailing 
famine  should  cease.  Thorkel  therefore  invites  the 
Sj)ae-wife  to  his  house  and  prepares  for  her  a  good  re- 
ception, such  as  was  customary  when  a  woman  of 
her  standing  was  expected.  A  cushion  was  pre- 
pared for  her;  it  had  to  be  stuffed  with  hen- 
feathers.  It  was  laid  upon  the  high-seat  in  the 
evening,  when  she  came  in  wdth  the  man  who  had 
been  sent  out  to  receive  her.  She  was  dressed  on 
this  occasion  as  follows: — She  wore  a  blue  cloak 
with  fastenings  of  cords  (tyglarmotull),  set  with 
stones  around  the  border  from  top  to  bottom  (alt  i 
skaut  ofan).  Around  her  neck  she  had  glass  beads  ; 
upon  her  head  a  black  lambskin  hood  (kofri),  lined 
with  white  catskin.  She  carried  a  staff  mounted 
with  brass,  with  the  head  inlaid  with  stones.  She 
was  girded  with  a  young  bearskin  belt  (hiinskan 
linda),  and  to  this  hung  a  large  pouch  in  which  she 
kept  the  instruments  of  magic  belonging  to  her 


290  RELIGION    OF   THE    NORTHMEN. 

occupation.  On  her  feet  she  wore  shaggy  calfskin 
shoes  with  long,  heavy  thongs,  on  the  ends  of  which 
were  large  brass  buttons  (latuns  knappar).  She  had 
catskin  gloves  upon  her  hands,  white  within  and 
shaggy.  When  she  entered,  every  one  felt  it  a  duty 
to  greet  her  with  reverence ;  she  returned  their 
salutations  according  to  what  she  thought  of  each 
one  individually.  Thorkel  took  the  wise  woman 
(visinda  konunni)*by  the  hand  and  conducted  her  to 
the  seat  prepared  for  her.  He  requested  her  to 
cast  her  eyes  over  (renna  augum  yfir)  his  herds  and 
property  and  house.  She  said  but  little  concerning 
all  this.  In  the  evening  the  tables  were  set,  and 
now  it  shall  be  told  what  dishes  were  made  ready 
for  the  Spae-wife.  There  was  groats,  made  of  goats' 
milk  (ki5a  mjolk) ;  but  her  food  was  j^repared  from 
the  hearts  of  every  kind  of  animal  that  there  was  in 
the  neighborhood.  She  had  a  brass  spoon,  and  a 
knife  of  copper  with  a  shaft  of  walrus- cooth  and  a 
double  sheath  (knif  tannskeptan  tviholkaSan  af 
eiri);  the  point  of  it  was  broken  off.  When  the 
tables  were  cleared,  Thorkel  Bondi  goes  up  to  Tlior- 
bjorg  and  asks  what  she  thinks  of  the  house  and  the 
aj^pearance  of  the  i)eople,  and  also  how  soon  she 
will  have  a  revelation  concerning  the  things  he  has 
asked  her  about  and  which  the  people  are  all 
anxious  to  know.  She  answers  that  she  cannot 
make  this  known  before  morning,  after  she  has 
slept  there  over  night.  Early  in  the  morning  all 
the  arrangements  were  made  for  her  which  belong 
to  the  incantations  of  Sei5r.  She  then  asked  them 
to  furnish  her  with  women  who  knew  the  magic 


DIVINATION.  291 

formulas  (fr8e5i)  of  that  ceremony,  and  who  are 
called  Yar61okur,  i.  e.^  the  Watch-guard ;  but  none 
could  be  found  who  knew  it,  although  inquiry  was 
made  at  all  the  neighboring  houses.  Then  Gu5ri5, 
a  young  girl  who  was  present,  said,  'I  am  not 
skilled  in  magic  nor  any  wise  woman;  but  my 
foster-mother  in  Iceland  taught  me  a  formula,  which 
she  called  Yar51okur.'  Thorkel  said,  'Tliou  art 
wiser  than  I  thought.'  Gu5ri5  answered,  'This 
formula  and  the  proceedings  connected  with  it  are 
of  such  a  character  that  I  cannot  be  present  to  assist 
with  them  ;  for  I  am  a  Christian.'  Thorkel  replied, 
'  Thou  couldst  help  us  in  this  matter  without  harm- 
ing thyself  thereby;  I  should  be  glad  to  furnish 
Thorbjorg  with  whatever  is  necessary.'  He  then 
persuaded  Gu5ri5  so  long  that  she  at  length 
promised  to  fulfill  his  wishes,  ]^!^ow  Thorbjorg  sat 
upon  the  witch-seat  (sei5hjallr),  and  the  women 
formed  a  circle  around  her.  Gu6ri5  sang  the  song 
so  beautifully  and  so  well,  that  no  one  of  the  by- 
standers thought  they  had  ever  heard  a  fairer  song. 
Even  the  S]3ae-wife  thought  the  song  was  beautiful 
to  hear,  and  thanked  her  for  it  when  it  was  done. 
'Xow^,'  says  Thorbjorg,  'I  have  reflected  on  i\\Q 
matter,  how  it  will  be  both  with  the  sickness  and 
with  the  seasons ;  and  much  has  now  been  made 
clear  to  me  that  before  was  hidden  from  me  and 
from  others.'  She  then  foretold  that  the  famine 
and  sickness  which  were  raging,  should  both  disap- 
pear in  the  spring.  To  Gu6ri5  she  prophesied,  in 
return  for  the  services  she  had  rendered,  a  very 
happy  fate  in  the  future,  and  also  that  a  renowned 


202  EELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

family  (the  Sturlungs  of  Iceland)  should  be  descend- 
ed from  her.  Afterward  all  the  company  went  one 
after  the  other  to  the  Spae-wife  and  consulted  her 
about  the  future  matters  which  they  wished  to 
know;  and  she  gave  them  definite  answers.  Soon 
afterwards  she  was  invited  to  another  house,  and 
went  thither;  but  her  prophecies  concerning  the 
coming  events  of  the  year  were  entirely  fulfilled."^ 
The  truth  of  this  description  is  confirmed  by  the 
accounts — more  imperfect,  it  is  true — which  are  re- 
corded of  the  Yalas  in  other  Sagas.  Thus  Orvar- 
Odd's  Saga  relates  of  Hei5,  a  Yala  and  Witch  of 
Norway,  that  she  wandered  around  to  the  festivals 
attended  by  fifteen  boys  and  fifteen  girls.  She  fore- 
told the  peculiarities  of  the  seasons  and  the  destiny 
of  men.  When  she  came  by  invitation  to  the  house 
of  Ingjald,  he  went  out  with  all  his  attendants  to 
meet  her.  After  the  evening  meal,  when  the 
house-folk  had  retired  to  bed,  the  Yala  and  her 
companions  set  about  their  nocturnal  vigils  (for  til 
nattfarssei5s.)  In  the  morning,  the  people  of  the 
house  came  in  one  after  another  before  her  seat  and 
listened  to  her  proj)hecies.  After  a  sojourn  of  three 
days  she  departed  with  rich  gifts. f  AV^e  h'cre  see 
that  it  was  customary  to  practice  sei5  during  the 
night,  before  the  solemn  prophecies  were  to  be 
uttered  in  the  morning.  The  boys  and  girls  who 
accompanied  I-Iei5  were,  doubtless,  to  form  the  circle 
around  the  witches'  seat  and  to  sing  the  enchanting 

*  Saga  af  Eiriki  llauCa,  5. 
t  Orv.  Odds  S.  1 


DIVINATION.  293 

song.  A  Yala's  train  in  JS'orway  could  of  course 
be  far  more  splendid  and  awe-inspiring  than  in  the 
poor  and  thinly-settled  Greenland.  Tlie  Yatnsdsela 
Saga  represents  the  Icelandic  Spae-wife  Thordis  as 
being  so  highly  esteemed,  that  even  at  the  assem- 
blies she  was  chosen  arbitrator  in  the  most  import- 
ant cases.  Her  dress  was  a  black  hooded-cloak 
(kufl),  and  her  staff  IIangnu5r  was  believed  to  have 
the  power  to  impart  forgetfulness  to  any  man  who 
was  touched  by  it  three  times  upon  the  left  cheek, 
but  it  would  restore  his  memory  when  he  was 
struck  by  it  three  times  upon  his  right  cheek."^* 
The  Staff  (sei5stafr,  voir)  appears,  on  the  whole,  to 
have  been  the  Yala's  most  important  mark  of 
dignity,  which  was  even  to  accompany  her  into  the 
grave.  Some  have  also  supposed  that  the  name 
Yala  stands  in  connection  with  voir,  a  stick. 

Something  remains  to  be  said,  in  conclusion,  con- 
cerning the  heathen  J^orthmen's  belief  in  dreams 
and  omens. 

To  all  dreams  that  appeared  in  any  way  unusual 
they  gave  a  meaning,  and  the  people  who  were 
thought  to  possess  special  gifts  in  interpreting  them 
were  called  draumspekingar,  i.  e.,  Dream-wise. 
But  the  interpretation  was  mostly  very  arbitrary, 
and  it  is,  indeed,  probable  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  significant  dreams  which  the  Sagas  can  give 
account  of,  were  invented,  or  at  least  greatly  em- 
bellished, after  the  event  which  they  are  said  to 
have    foreboded  had  already  taken  place.     The 

*  Vatnsd.  S.  2. 


294  RELIGION   OF  THE   NOETKMEN. 

significant  revelations  in  dreams  made  by  tlie  Fyl- 
gjur  have  been  already  mentioned.^'  There  was 
often  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  concerning  the 
manner  in  which  a  dream  should  be  interpreted ; 
an  example  may  show  how  uncertain  the  interpreta- 
tions mostly  were.  An  Icelandic  chieftain  named 
Thorkel  Silfra  dreamed,  on  the  night  before  he 
expected  to  be  chosen  Go5i  in  Yatnsdal,  that  he 
rode  through  the  valley  upon  a  red  horse  so  swiftly 
that  the  horse's  feet  scarcely  touched  the  ground. 
He  interpreted  the  dream  to  refer  to  the  new 
dignity  which  he  had  in  expectation.  But  his  wife 
was  of  another  mind.  "  A  horse,"  said  she,  "  is  called 
by  another  name,  7nar ;  but  mar  signifies  also  a 
man's  Fylgja,  and  that  which  is  bloody  appears  red.'' 
From  this  she .  explained  the  meaning  to  be,  that 
Thorkel  would  be  killed  at  the  meeting,  which  also 
happened.!  It  was  also  a  very  ancient  superstition 
that  people  did  not  have  equally  significant  dreams 
in  all  places.  What  was  presented  to  one  when  he 
slept  in  a  new  house,  w^as  thought  deserving  of 
special  attention.  Some,  again,  used  to  sleep  in  a 
pig-sty  in  order  to  obtain  revelations  in  their 
dreams.  The  history  of  King  Halfdan  Svarti,  who 
in  this  manner  received  information  of  the  future 
greatness  of  his  family,  is  well  known. if 

Concerning  omens  (fyrirbur5ir),  which  appear  to 
have  been  presented  to  people  in  a  waking  state, 
both  in  visions  and  by  other  means,  there  are  like- 

*  Chap.  XYIIL 

f  Vatnsd.  S.  42. 

X  Snor.:  Il^lfd  Sv.  S.  7. 


DIVINATION.  295 

wise  many  accounts  in  tlie  Sagas.     Certain  omens, 
it  was  believed,  w^ere  repeated  before  events  of  a 
corresponding  character.     Thus  it  was  thought  to 
denote  a  near-approaching  violent  death  when  a 
person  saw  his  own  Fjlgja  bloody.     Tlie  wise  Ice- 
landic chieftain  'Nml  said  to  his  workman  Thord, 
when  the  latter  seemed  to  see  a  goat  lie  bleeding  in 
his  yard :     "  That  is  neither  a  goat  nor  anything  else, 
but  thou  art  a  doomed  man;  thou  hast  seen  thy 
Fylgja."^     The  same  was  the  case  when  any  one 
seemed  to  see  blood  upon  the  table  instead  of  food, 
or  when  the  portion  of  food  assigned  tojiim  vanished. 
It  was  a  universal  belief  that  as  an  omen  of  a  near- 
approaching  bloody  battle,  blood  sometimes  dripped 
from  axes,  swords,  or  spears,  or  that  there  was  a 
loud  singing  in  those  weapons  when  men  were  tak- 
ing them  up  to  arm  themselves.     With  this  class  of 
omens  may  be  reckoned  the  so-called  Urdar  Moon 
(ur5armani)  which  was  believed  to  forebode  a  great 
mortality  in  the  place  where  it  appeared.     This  ap- 
pearance is  described  in  the  Eyrbyggja  Saga :  "  One 
evening  as  the  people  of  Froda  (an  estate  in  western 
Iceland)  were  sitting  around  the  fire,  they  saw  a 
half-moon  upon  the  wall.     All  who  were  in  the 
house  could  see  it.     This  moon  passed  backward 
from  the  sun  around  the  house,  and  did  not  vanish 
so  long  as  the  people  sat  by  the  fire.     Thorodd,  the 
master  of  the  house,  asked  Thorir  Trefot  what  this 
could  indeed  mean.     Thorir  answered  that  it  was 
Urdar  moon,  and  that  it  foreboded  death.     On  every 

*  Nidls  S.  41. 


296  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

evening  during  a  whole  week  this  moon  made  its 
appearance."*  The  name  TJr5armani  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  it  was  regarded  as  a  sign  from  the  Norns, 
or  from  the  highest  Norn  Ur5nr. 

There  were  other  omens  which  were  believed  to 
be  peculiar  to  certain  remarkable  events.  Such  are 
repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  Sagas,  and  it  mostly 
belongs  to  the  history  of  every  event  of  more  than 
usual  importance  in  public  or  private  life,  to  have 
some  omen  brought  up  as  going  before  it.  Some- 
times there  are  accounts  of  the  revelations  of  super- 
natural beings,  who  by  significant  but  enigmatical 
songs  announced  what  was  to  happen,  while  at  other 
times  the  omens  consisted  only  of  strange  sights  in 
the  air  or  upon  the  earth. 

Finally,  they  often  perceived  omens  in  quite  natural 
occurrences,  which  were  expounded  by  certain 
established  rules,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case.  Thus  when  they  marched  out  to  battle  it 
was  considered  a  good  omen  if  they  saw  a  raven  fly- 
ing in  the  same  direction,  or  if  they  perceived  two 
men  standing  in  conversation,  or  heard  a  wolf  howl ; 
but  if  any  one  stumbled  in  going  out  to  battle,  it 
was  thought  to  forebode  evil.  "When  a  man  was 
slain  by  arms  and  fell  forwards,  it  was  accepted  as 
an  omen  that  he  should  be  avenged ;  and  the  ven- 
geance, it  was  believed,  would  strike  the  one  who 
stood  directly  before  him  when  he  fell. 

*  Ejrb.  S.  12. 


OTHER  SUPEESTITIONS.  297 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 


OTHER   SUPERSTITIONS. 


Beside  the  belief  in  sorcery  and  divination,  many 
other  superstitions  prevailed  among  the  heathen 
I^orthmen  which  were  either  directly  or  indirectly 
connected  with  their  religion. 

First  in  this  connection  may  be  noticed  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  supernatural  beings  with  which  their 
imagination  peopled  the  mountains,  the  interior  of 
the  earth,  and  the  sea  ;  beings  which  have  been 
alluded  to  above  only  in  a  partial  manner,  in  so  far 
as  they  appear  in  the  Asa  Mythology  in  a  higher 
mythic  significance  or  as  they  were  objects  of  popu- 
lar worship. 

The  strongest  and  most  terrible  of  these  beings 
were  the  Jotuns  or  Giants,  "who  were  also  called  Ri- 
sar,  Tliursar,  Troll,  Bergbuar,  and  their  wives  were 
named  Trollkonar  and  Gygar.  The  mythic  signifi- 
cance of  these  beings  has  been  already  spoken  of.* 
They  were  represented  to  be  shapeless  giants,  of  a 
dark  and  hideous  aspect.  Their  usual  dwelling 
place  was  thought  to  be  in  the  wild  mountains. 
They  were,  it  is  certain,  most  usually  imagined  to 

*  Chap.  XII.  and  XVIII. 


298  RELIGION   or  THE   NORTHMEN. 

be  the  enemies  of  mankind,  a  representation  wliicli 
most  nearly  coincides  with  the  manner  in  which 
they  manifest  themselves  in  the  Asa  Mythology,  but 
it  was  also  believed  that  people  could  sometimes 
make  friends  of  them,  and  then  these  mountain 
genii  became  the  trusty  guardians  of  house  and  pro- 
perty. They  were  believed  to  shun  the  light  of  the 
sun,  and  if  the  sun  surprised  them  out  of  their  moun- 
tain homes,  they  were  transformed  to  stone.  The 
Troll-women  were  represented  as  most  frequently 
making  their  appearance  in  riding  upon  wolves, 
with  serpents  for  their  bridles. 

A  peculiar  kind  of  Thurs  or  Demon  is  mentioned 
under  the  name  of  Brunnmigi,  which  was  believed 
to  d^ell  in  the  springs  and  streams  that  gush  out  of 
mountains.  Tlie  name  signifies  one  who  makes 
water  in  the  fountains,  and  it  seems  in  this  connec- 
tion to  indicate  that  to  this  kind  of  genius  was  as- 
cribed the  origin  of  all  mineral  or  ill-tasted,  ill-scented 
w^aters.  This  also  agrees  with  the  myth  of  the  salt- 
ness  of  the  sea  being  produced  by  beings  of  Jotun 
nature.* 

It  was  supposed  that  the  Thursar  and  human 
beings  could  form  marriage  connections  with  each 
other,  and  hence  arose  a  blended  race,  the  so-called 
blendingar  (hybrids)  who  retained,  both  in  charac- 
ter and  appearance,  something  that  gave  evidence 
of  their  twofold  origin.  By  being  afterwards  united 
with  mankind  through  many  generations,  the  Thursar 
nature  of  these  liybrids  could  by  degrees  be  worn 

•  TheL.  Edda:  Skdlda  43. 


OTHER   SUPERSTITIONS.  299 

away.  Sncli  a  descent  was  no  doubt  conferred  upon 
the  men  who  received  the  surname  of  Halftroll.  A 
giant-like,  hideous  appearance  and  a  ferocious  dis- 
position may  have  given  cause  for  such  an  idea,  es- 
pecially when  those  qualities  were  hereditary 
through  several  generations  of  one  family. 

The  belief  in  Dwarves  as  inhabitants  of  the  interior 
of  the  earth  and  especially  of  large  isolated  rocks, 
was  likewise  a  direct  offshoot  of  the  Asa-Mythology. 

Tliese  beings  were  considered  to  be  great  artists 
in  preparing  metals.  Weapons  of  remarkably  good 
propei'ties  were  said  to  be  produced  from  their  sub- 
terranean workshops.  The  Dwarves,  like  the  Jo- 
tuns,  could  not  endure  the  sunlight ;  they  became 
turned  into  stone  if  they  were  approached  by  its 
rays  while  out  of  their  dwellings.*  It  was  also  be- 
lieved that  if  a  man  met  a  dwarf  away  from  his  rock, 
and  should  throw  steel  between  him  and  his  home, 
he  could  close  up  his  habitation  to  him  and  thereby 
become  able  to  extort  from  him  whatever  he  wished. 
As  Echo  in  the  Old-lSTorse  was  called  "  Dwarf  lan- 
guage "  (dvergmal),  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 
people  imagined  it  to  be  produced  by  the  Dwarves 
living  within  the  mountains,  who  imitated  the  sound 
they  heard  without. 

Although  the  Dwarves  in  the  Asa  doctrine  have 
a  very  important  mythic  signification,  yet  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  in  general  quite  as  little  an  object 
of  worship  among  the  JSTorthmen  as  were  the  Jotuns. 
It  was  only  when  a  Jotun  or  a  Dwarf  was  occa- 

*  The  0.  Edda :  AlvismJi],  3G. 


300  EELIGION   OF  THE   NORTHMEN. 

sionally  looked  up  to  as  the  guardian  spirit  of  a  cer- 
tain estate  or  a  certain  district,  that  he  could  be  wor- 
shiped in  the  character  of  "Land  Guardian."  Tlie 
same  might  be  the  case  with  beings  of  the  Dwarf 
race  when  thej  were  regarded  as  the  Disir  of  par- 
ticular persons  or  families. 

In  regard  to  other  supernatural  beings  who  lived 
in  the  popular  belief,  their  connection  with  the  Asa 
doctrine  is  not  so  easily  seen.  Such  are  the  Mer- 
men and  Mermaids,  the  ISTykar,  Finngalknar  and 
Dragons. 

The  Merman  w^as  called  Marmennill.  His  form 
and  appearance  are  nowhere  described.  The  most 
remarkable  attribute  of  this  being  w^as  his  gift  of 
prophecy.  It  was  believed  that  if  a  man  should  be 
so  fortunate  as  to  fish  up  a  merman  from  the  sea,  he 
could  compel  him  to  foretell  his  destiny.  The  Mar- 
mennill could  also  live  awhile  upon  dry  land,  but 
it  took  no  pleasure  in  that  kind  of  life,  and  pined  for 
its  home  in  the  sea. 

The  Mermaid  (Margygur)  is  described  as  having 
the  form  of  a  woman  to  the  belt,  but  that  of  a  fish 
below.  It  was  believed  to  presage  good  or  evil  to 
sea-farers.  For  instance,  if  one  had  risen  above  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  when  it  again  dived  under  it  fore- 
])oded  evil  if  it  turned  itself  towards  the  ship,  but  if 
it  turned  away  from  the  ship  it  was  then  a  presage 
of  good.  It  may,  however,  be  remarked  of  the 
superstition  concerning  this  being,  that  it  is  possibly 
of  a  foreign  and  southern  origin,  and  that  it  is  the 
Syren  that  here  presents  itself,  although  in  some  de- 
gree fashioned  after  the  notions  of  the  Northmen. 


OTHER   SUPERSTITIONS.  301 

The  jN'yk  is  described  as  a  horse  of  a  dapple-gray 
color,  whose  place  of  resort  was  in  fresh-water 
streams,  where  it  sometimes  made  its  appearance  on 
the  banks.  It  appears  to  have  been  exceedingly 
strong,  and  it  sometimes  allowed  itself  to  be  taken 
by  men  and  set  to  work  during  the  day  ;  but  when 
the  sun  went  down  it  tore  itself  out  of  the  harness 
and  ran  off  into  the  water  again.  Thus  it  is  related 
of  a  certain  Au5un  Yalisson,  a  settler  of  Iceland, 
that  during  harvest  time  he  saw  a  dapple-gray 
stallion  run  out  from  IIjar5arvatn  to  some  of  his 
horses.  Au5un  caught  the  gray  horse,  harnessed  it 
to  a  sled,  which  was  usually  drawn  by  two  oxen, 
and  hauled  all  his  hay  together  with  it.  The  horse 
was  very  easily  managed  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
but  as  evening  came  on  it  became  restive  and 
stamped  in  the  ground  up  to  its  fetlocks,  and  after 
sunset  it  broke  out  of  the  harness,  ran  to  the  water 
and  was  never  seen  afterwards.''^  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  the  Nyk,  especially  in  the  Christian  Mid- 
dle Ages,  was  regarded  as  a  being  that  could  assume 
various  forms.  In  Norway  and  Iceland  the  people 
still  believe  in  the  existence  of  this  being,  and  they 
usually  describe  it  just  as  it  is  described  by  the  an- 
cients. In  Iceland  at  the  present  day  it  is  called 
Nykr,  and  also  Yatnhest  or  JSTennir.f 

The  Finngalkn  is  a  monster  that  is  often  men- 
tioned, but  not  further  described  except  in  the  later 
fictitious  Sagas.    According  to  these,  it  had  the  head 

*  Landnmb.  II.  10. 

f  Olafsen  and  Povelsen's  Travels,  p.  55. 
14 


302  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

of  a  man,  with  large  teeth,  the  body  of  an  animal, 
with  a  huge'  tail,  terrible  claws  and  a  sword  in 
every  claw.  But  these  descriptions  seem  rather  to 
be  creations  of  the  Saga -writer's  imagination,  guided 
by  the  pictures  of  similar  monsters  in  the  myths  of 
more  southern  nations,  than  to  rest  upon  any  ancient 
legend  preserved  from  heathen  times,  although  it  is 
true  the  heathens  had  imagined  the  existence  of  a 
supernatural  being  of  that  name. 

Dragons,  according  to  the  most  ancient  heathen 
representations,  were  nothing  more  than  monstrous 
serpents,  by  which  name — ormar,  si7ig.  ormr — they 
are   also  mostly  named  in  the  older  manuscripts. 
The  superstition  was  prevalent  that  the  Orm^  espe- 
cially the  so-called  lyngormr  (doubtless  the  Dragon — 
Danisli^  Lindorm,  German,  Lindwurm~of  the  Danish 
and  German  legends  and  songs  of  the  Middle  Ages), 
if  laid  upon  gold,  would  grow  as  large  as  the  gold. 
It  was  thus  with  the  serpent  which,  according  to  the 
legend,  surrounded  Thoras  Borg,  the  Gotliic  King  s 
daughter,  and  which  Kagnar  L66br6k  slew.*    These 
imaginary  monsters  were  often  supposed  to  be  the 
transformations  of  avaricious  men  who  had  volun- 
tarily clothed  themselves  in  this  enchanted  form  in 
order  to  brood  in  safety  over  their  gold.     It  was  also 
said  of  them  that  tliey  bore  the  Helmet  of  Terror 
(-^gisbjahnar),  with  which  they  frightened  away  all 
living  things.    Thus  Fafnir  is  described  in  the  an- 
cient legend  which  one  of  the  Eddaic  poems  treats 
of.f    Thus  also,  a  somewhat  later  legend  sj^eaks  of 

»  Ragn.  L65br.  S,  1-2. 
f  The  0.  Edda :  Fafnism^l. 


OTHER  SUPERSTITIONS.  303 

tlie  Joinsviking  Bui  the  Thick,  who  in  the  battle  at 
Hjomngavag  jumped  overboard  with  his  two  heavy 
chests  of  gold,  "that  he  transformed  himself  into  a 
serpent  upon  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  there  brooded 
over  his  treasures."*  In  later  times  these  serpents 
were  imagined  to  be  winged  dragons  (iiugrdrekar), 
probably  after  the  legends  of  southern  lands  had 
been  heard  of,  concerning  such  monsters. 

Deeply  rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  heathen  E'orth- 
men  was  the  belief  in  ghosts  and  their  apparitions 
(a23trganga,  jplur.  aptrgongur,  reimleikar),  and  this 
belief  appears  to  have  been  intimately  connected 
with  their  ideas  of  a  future  state.  The  peculiar  doc- 
trines of  the  Asa-faith  on  this  subject  have  been 
before  unfolded.  The  soul  was  imagined  to  return 
to  its  original  source — to  Heaven  and  the  Gods 
abiding  there — while  the  body  and  the  grosser  life 
connected  with  it  wandered  to  the  abodes  of  TIel  or 
Death.  Herewith  was  very  naturally  connected  the 
belief  that  the  spirit  of  the  departed  could  leave  its 
home  with  the  Gods  and  again  visit  the  earth  at 
night,  in  order  to  unite  itself  at  the  funeral  mound 
with  the  bodily  shadow,  which  was  set  free  from 
Helheim.  The  departed  were  thus  enabled  some- 
times to  appear  in  the  opening  mounds  in  the  same 
forms  which  they  had  worn  in  life.  The  old  Eddaic 
poem  of  Helgi  Hundingsbani  makes  the  hero  return 
by  night  from  Yalhalla,  called  back  by  the  grief  of 
his  deserted  wife  Sigrun.  Signm  sees  him  with  all 
his  death-wounds,  in  the  open  mound ;  she  goes  in  to 

«-  Jdmsv.  B.  49  in  Fornm.  S.  XI. 


304:  RELIGION   OF   THE   NOETHMEN. 

liim  and  tliej  remain  there  together  during  the 
night.  But  with  the  dawning  day  he  rides  again 
upon  his  pale  horse  back  to  YalhaHa ;  he  must  be 
there  before  the  crowing  of  the  cock  shall  awaken 
the  Einherjar.  When  the  dead  thus  made  them- 
selves visible  by  night  in  the  open  burial  mounds, 
sometimes  surrounded  by  flames  of  fire  or  by  a  clear 
light  which  cast  no  shadow,  then  the  portals  of  Ilel 
were  said  to  be  opened  ;  then  had  Hel  set  free  the 
bodily  part  to  be  united  for  a  season  with  the  soul, 
which  came  to  the  mound  from  Yalhalla.  Such  ap- 
paritions were  usually  believed  to  be  harmless,, and 
to  make  their  appearance  only  to  comfort  beloved 
survivors  or  to  give  them  good  counsel.  When 
drowned  persons  came  as  apparitions  to  the  funeral 
ceremonies  which  the  survivors  held  to  their  mem- 
ory, it  was  looked  upon  as  a  good  omen ;  a  token 
that  tlie  departed  had  met  with  a  friendly  reception 
from  Ean. 

It  was  believed  to  be  otherwise  with  men  whose 
souls,  by  a  contempt  for  the  Gods,  joined  to  wicked- 
ness and  a  base  disposition,  had  rendered  themselves 
unworthy  of  the  joys  of  Heaven.  Tlieir  whole 
being  became  at  their  death  the  prey  of  Ilel,  and 
whenever  they  left  their  funeral  mounds  they  be- 
came frightful  specters,  whose  delight  it  was  to  tor- 
ment the  living.  It  was  said  that  when  they  thus 
made  their  appearance,  they  were  stronger  and  far 
more  hideous  than  they  had  been  when  living. 
"They  only  showed  themselves  at  night — when  the 
sun  was  not  shining.  By  day  the  undecayed  body 
lay  blue  and  bloated,  but  dead  and  quiet  in  the 


OTHER  SUPEESTITIONS.  305 

grave.  The  only  power  which  it  was  thought  to  be 
possessed  of  then,  was  that  of  making  itself  so  heavy 
that  if  any  one  tried  to  remove  it,  levers  w^ere  neces- 
sary to  raise  it  up  and  strong  oxen  strained  them- 
selves in  attempting  to  drag  it  away.  In  mid-win- 
ter, at  Yule-tide,  the  ravages  of  all  specters  were  the 
worst,  but  in  the  height  of  summer-time  people  saw 
no  traces  of  them.  It  was  believed  that  they  would 
kill  the  people  whom  they  could  lay  hold  of  in  their 
ghostly  wanderings,  or  at  least  frighten  them  out  of 
their  senses,  and  but  few  of  the  Living  were  bold 
enough  to  dare,  or  strong  enough  to  bear,  an  en- 
counter with  them.  Even  if  the  living  should  come 
off  victorious,  the  bare  remembrance  of  the  horrid 
vision  would  make  him  ever  afterwards  afraid  in  the 
dark,  however  great  a  hero  and  warrior  he  might 
otherwise  be.  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  such  hard 
customers  was,  to  dig  up  the  body,  burn  it  to  ashes, 
and  scatter  the  ashes  in  the  sea,  or  else  to  cut  the 
head  off  the  corpse  and  lay  it  between  its  legs."^ 
Doubtless  it  was  believed  that  the  body  was  neces- 
sary to  this  class  of  the  Dead,  in  order  to  make  their 
appearance  among  the  living  ;  when  their  souls  were 
deprived  of  this  means  of  carrying  on  operations, 
they  could  no  longer  do  any  harm  to  men,  but  had 
to  stay  in  their  dwelling  in  Ilelheim. 

We  find  mention  of  another  way  to  get  rid  of 
troublesome  apparitions,  namely,  to  prosecute  them 
with  all  legal  formalities  for  the  disturbance  they 
occasioned,  and  to  banish  them  by  a  regular  sen- 

^  Laxd.  S. :  Eyrb.  S.:  Grettis  S.  et  al. 


306  RELIGION   OF  THE  NOETHMEN. 

tence  of  law.  The  decree  was  posted  upon  the 
principal  door  of  the  house  where  the  specters  made 
their  appearance.  In  the  Eyrbyggja  Saga,  which 
is  very  rich  in  traces  of  the  heathen  superstitions? 
we  find  the  description  of  a  judicial  process  of  this 
kind,  which  it  seems  was  held  on  the  estate  of  Fro5a 
in  Iceland,  where  a  whole  troop  of  ghosts  had  ap- 
peared every  evening  for  a  long  time  and  scared  the 
people  of  the  house  away  from  the  fire,  in  order  to 
get  a  seat  by  it  themselves.  The  sentence  of  banish- 
ment, it  is  stated,  was  passed  on  each  specter  in 
particular,  by  expressly  calling  him  by  name,  where- 
upon the  ghost  had  to  take  his  departure  through 
the  opposite  door,  however  reluctant  he  might  be  to 

go.  _         - 

It  was  a  consequence  of  their  ideas  of  a  future 
state,  to  bury  with  the  dead  in  the  grave,  not  only 
useful  implements  with  which  they  could  busy  them- 
selves when  the  spirit  at  night  visited  the  home  of 
the  body  and  clothed  itself  for  a  season  in  the  cast- 
off  earthly  form,  but  also  gold  and  ornaments  with 
which  they  could  shine  in  the  halls  of  Hel,  or  else 
splendid  armor  with  which  the  spirit,  which  was 
never  conceived  of  as  being  quite  deprived  of  all 
bodily  form,  could  make  an  honorable  entrance  into 
Yalhalla.  These  treasures,  which,  when  very  rich, 
were  thought  to  betray  themselves  by  nocturnal 
fires  which  burned  above  the  mounds  (haugeldar), 
often  allured  bold  men  to  break  open  and  rob  tlie 
graves.  But  these  mound-breakers  had  to  go  pre- 
pared for  a  hard  struggle  with  the  inhabitant  of  the 
mound  (haugbui)  or  the  ghost  of  the  buried  mauj 


OTHER   SUPERSTITIONS.  307 

which  was  believed  rarely  to  grant  its  treasures  to 
any  living  being.  They  could  never  gain  undis- 
turbed possession  of  the  treasures  until  they  had  suc- 
ceeded in  hewing  oif  the  head  of  the  specter  and 
laying  it  between  its  legs.  But  the  great  advantages 
promised  by  such  a  mound-breaking,  induced  them 
to  close  their  eyes  against  the  dangers  of  the  under- 
taking, as  well  as  the  wrong  which  they  doubtless 
believed  there  was  in  thus  disturbing  the  repose  of 
the  dead.  Many  descriptions  of  terrible  battles  with 
these  mound-spirits  are  found  in  the  Sagas,^  which 
contain  a  multitude  of  remarkable  features  of  the 
ancient  ISTorthmen's  belief  in  specters. 

Another  very  ancient  superstition  may  here  be 
cited  in  conclusion,  namely,  the  belief  that  men 
could  be  born  again  (vera  endrbornir),  that  the 
spirit  could  pass  from  one  body  when  it  was  dead, 
and  enter  another  in  order  to  be  born  anew  with  it. 
Thus  it  was  believed  that  the  hero  Ilelgi  Hjorvar5s- 
son  was  born  again  in  Ilelgi  Hundingsbani,  and 
Svafa,  the  favorite  of  the  former,  in  the  Yalkyrja 
Sigrun,  who  was  beloved  by  the  latter.  In  like 
manner  it  was  believed  that  Olaf  the  Saint  was  the 
re-born  Olaf  Geirsta5a-Alf.  Connected  with  this 
and  likewise  of  heathen  origin  appears  to  have  been 
the  belief  that  two  persons  could  have,  in  common, 
one  man's  life ;  and  that  both  should  therefore  die 
at  the  same  time. 

*  IlorSs  S.  14  ;  Grettis  S.  20. 


308  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 


CHAPTER    XXYIL 

INFLUENCE     OF    THE    ASA-FAITH    UPON    THE     NATIONAL 
SPIRIT   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

That  the  Asa-faith  exercised  a  miglity  infiueuce 
over  the  character  of  all  the  nations  who  were  its 
adherents,  is  manifest.  As  to  the  E'orthmen,  it  is 
only  necessary,  in  confirmation  hereof,  to  take  a.com- 
parative  view  of  the  doctrines  of  that  faith  and  of 
the  j)opnlar  life  in  heathendom,  as  portrayed  by  the 
Sagas.  By  this,  however,  we  would  not  say  that 
the  popular  character,  individually  and  collectively, 
was  created  by  that  faith;  that  the  virtues  and 
vices  of  the  people  originated  in  it  alone.  In  that 
case  we  might  fancy  that  the  Germanic  nations,  and 
especially  the  N"orraena  branch,  had  received  the 
Asa-faith  as  a  comparatively  finished  system  of  re- 
ligion. But  this  would  certainly  be  an  incorrect 
view  of  the  subject.  This  people,  at  its  separation 
from  a  larger  wdiole,  took  with  it  only  the  germs  of 
that  faith  which  afterward  became  developed  in  a 
peculiar  direction,  under  the  influence  of  the  popular 
life  and  the  action  of  external  circumstances  upon 
that  life,  but  which  also  reacted  upon  that  life  with 
a  power  which  increased  in  proportion  as  the  sys- 
tem acquired  by  development    a    more    decided 


INFLTTENCE  OF  THE  ASA-FAITIL  309 

character.  In  this  we  can  perceive  an  active  recip- 
rocating influence  between  the  religion  and  the 
popular  life,  analogous  to  that  operating  between 
the  soul  and  the  body. 

When  we  find,  for  instance,  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  Asa-faith  concerning  Odin  as  Yal-father,  Yal- 
lialla,  and  the  Einherjar,  contains  a  strong  incentive 
to  warlike  deeds,  we  must  not,  therefore,  imagine 
that  the  warlike  spirit  which  displayed  itself  so 
j)owerfully  among  the  Germanic  tribes  in  general, 
and  the  I^orrgena  in  particular,  had  its  origin  in  this 
doctrine  precisely,  or  that  this  doctrine  consequent- 
ly forms  any  part  of  the  real  basis  of  the  religion. 
Eather  may  we  conceive  that  the  inherent  physical 
power  of  these  tribes,  set  in  activity  by  casual  out- 
w^ard  circumstances,  by  hostile  conflicts  with  other 
tribes  and  intestine  quarrels  among  themselves, 
called  forth  the  warlike  spirit  from  the  beginning ; 
that  this  spirit  in  turn  stamped  itself  upon  the  reli- 
gious doctrines,  and  finally,  that  the  religion,  after 
having  received  this  characteristic  impress,  again 
reacted  to  sustain  and  still  further  inflame  that  war- 
like sj)irit. 

The  influence  of  the  Asa-faith  upon  the  popular 
spirit  of  the  Northmen  must  be  regarded  from 
quite  another  point  of  view  than  that  of  Christianity 
at  a  later  period.  The  Asa-fiiith  was,  so  to  speak, 
inborn  with  this  particular  class  of  people  and  this 
particular  nation,  as  it  had  developed  itself  from 
certain  germs  and  taken  form  with  the  popular  life 
itself,  almost  unknown  to  it.  Christianity,  on  the 
contrary,  was  imparted  to  the  people  as  a  religious 
14* 


310  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

system  complete  in  itself,  appointed  for  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth ;  one  which  by  its  own  di\dne 
power  opened  for  itself  a  way  to  conviction,  and 
through  that  operated  on  the  popular  spirit  in  a 
direction  pointed  out  by  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  religion  itself. 

As  the  system  of  the  Asa-fjiith  arose  without  any  con- 
scious object  to  be  effected  in  morals,  therefore  it  did 
not  embrace  any  actual  code  of  morals,  in  the  higher 
sense  of  the  term.  The  Asa  doctrine  does  not  pro- 
nounce by  positive  expression  what  is  virtue  and  what 
is  vice ;  it  j)re-supposes  a  consciousness  thereof  in  its 
votaries.  It  only  represents  in  general  terms  Virtue 
as  bringing  its  own  reward,  Yice  its  own  punish-  ' 
ment,  if  not  here  upon  the  earth,  then  with  certain-  / 
ty  beyond  the  grave.  This  is  contained  in  the  doc- 
trines of  Yalhalla  and  Ilelheim,  of  Gimli  and  Na- 
strond.  For  the  rest,  the  precepts  relating  to  life 
which  are  propounded  as  divine  in  many  of  the 
heathen  poems,  especially  m  Ilavamal  and  Sigr- 
drifumal  of  the  Older  Edda,*  constitute  a  collection 
of  prudential  maxims  rather  than  a  system  of 
morals.  But  these  maxims,  inasmuch  as  they  were 
thought  to  proceed  from  the  Gods,  or  from  superior 
beings  nearly  related  to  tbe  Gods,  are  combined 
with  the  Asa-faith,  and  express  the  ideas  of  a 
rational  and  worthy  life  which  were  developed 
among  the  Xorthmen  under  its  influence. 

*  In  the  Ildvamdl — which  name  signifies  either  the  Sublime 
Discourses  or  the  Discourse  of  the  Sublime  Being — Odin  himself  is 
represented  as  the  speaker.  In  Sigrdrifumill  it  is  the  A'alkyrja 
Sigrdrifa,  who  gives  counsel  to  Sigurd  Fafnisbani, 


.       INFLUENCE   OF  THE   ASA-FAITH.  311 

What  these  rules  of  life,  which  are  tittered  in 
apothegms,  mainly  inculcate,  is  briefly  as  follows : 

The  recognition  of  man's  imperfection,  which 
should  challenge  in  him  a  struggle  against  his  own 
evil  propensities  and  forbearance  toward  the  weak- 
ness of  others. 

"  Vices  and  virtues  are  borne  by  the  sons  of  men 
blended  in  the  breast ;  no  man  is  so  good  that  his 
faults  do  not  follow  him ;  no  one  so  bad  that  he  is 
good  for  nothing." 

Courage  and  strength,  both  in  bearing  the  hard 
decrees  of  fate,  and  in  fighting  against  enemies. 

"The  unwdse  man  lies  awake  all  night,  and 
ponders  over  all  things :  then  he  is  weary  when  the 
morning  comes,  yet  his  sorrow  remains  as  it  was." 

"Silent  and  thoughtful  should  be  the  sons  of 
princes,  and  bold  in  battle." 

"The  timid  man  thinks  he  shall  live  forever  if 
he  keeps  away  from  battle;  but  age  gives  him 
no  peace  even  though  the  spear  may  spare  him." 

The  struggle  for  independence  in  life  w^ith  regard 
to  knowledge  as  well  as  fortune,  an  independence 
which  should,  therefore,  be  earned  by  a  love  of 
learning  and  by  industry. 

"A  friend  more  trusty  can  no  man  ever  have 
than  a  good  understanding." 

"Happy  he  who  has  law  and  understanding  of 
himself  while  he  lives;  for  evil  counsel  has  been 
often  found  in  the  breast  of  another." 

"  One's  own  home  is  the  best  though  little  it  may 
be ;  every  man  is  master  in  his  own  house.  Tliough 
he  have  but  two  goats  and  a  cottage  thatplied  with 
boughs,  is  it  better  than  begging." 


312  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

''A  bleeding  lieart  is  liis  who  lias  to  beg  his  bread 
for  every  meal." 

"Early  shall  he  rise  whose  laborers  are  few,  and 
see  to  his  work ;  many  things  hinder  him  who  sleeps 
away  the  morning.  The  half  of  riches  depends  on 
quickness." 

A  strict  adherence  to  oaths  and  promises : 

"This  I  counsel  thee  secondly,  that  thou  swear 
not  an  oath  unless  it  be  true;  cruel  fetters  shall 
bind  the  traitor;  wretched  is  he  who  breaks  his 
word." 

Candor  and  fidelity  as  well  as  foresight  in  love ; 
devotion  to  the  tried  friend,  but  dissimulation  toward 
the  false  and  war  to  the  death  against  the  implacable 
enemy. 

"To  thy  friend  shalt  thou  be  a  friend,  to  him  and 
his  friend ;  but  no  one  should  be  the  friend  of  his 
friend's  enemy." 

"Hast  thou  a  friend  in  whom  thou  hast  full  con- 
fidence, and  thou  wilt  receive  good  from  him,  then 
mingle  thy  thoughts  with  his,  exchange  gifts  with 
him  and  visit  him  often." 

"But  hast  thou  another  in  whom  thou  hast  not 
great  confidence,  and  yet  will  receive  good  from 
him,  fair  words  shalt  thou  speak  to  him  but  falsely 
think,  and  reward  loose  speech  with  lies." 

"Kever  be  the  first  to  break  off  rashly  with  thy 
friend.  Sorrow  consumes  the  heart  when  thou  hast 
no  one  to  whom  thou  canst  open  thy  whole  mind." 

"Make  thy  friend's  misfortune  thy  own;  but 
give  thy  enemy  no  peace." 

"  If  thou  wilt  find  a  good  wife,  to  be  a  i;)lcasant 


INFLTJENCE   OF  THE  ASA-FAITH.  313 

companion  and  to  bring  tliee  joy,  make  fair 
promises  but  bold  tbem  in  good  faitb;  no  one  is 
made  weary  witb  good." 

"  Hast  tbou  a  friend  in  whom  tbon  bast  full  confi- 
dence? go  often  to  see  bim;  for  tbe  weeds  grow 
and  tbe  bigb  grass  in  tbe  patb  wbere  no  one 
treads." 

"Once  I  was  young;  I  traveled  alone  tbrougb 
wild  patbs  ;  I  tbougbt  myself  ricb  wben  I  met  witb 
otbers.     Man  is  a  joy  to  man." 

"  Tbat  is  a  communion  of  soul  wbere  eacb  can 
say  contidentially  to  tbe  otber  all  bis  tbougbts. 
Anything  is  better  than  to  be  false.  He  is  not  a 
friend  wbo  speaks  only  fair  w^ords." 

"  Let  no  one  trust  tbe  words  of  a  maiden  nor  a 
woman's  speech;  for  upon  rolling  wheels  their 
hearts  were  formed,  and  inconstancy  lies  in  their 
breast." 

"Kever  rejoice  at  tbe  misfortunes  of  otbers,  but 
let  their  prosperity  please  thee." 

Respect  for  Age. 

"  Laugh  not  at  the  gray-haired  speaker.  That  is 
often  good  which  the  aged  have  to  say.  Often 
from  the  wrinkled  skin  come  forth  words  of 
wisdom." 

Hospitality,  liberality,  and  charity  to  tbe  poor. 

"  Fire  is  needed  by  him  who  has  come  in  and  is 
chilled  at  the  knees ;  food  and  clothing  are  needed 
by  tbe  man  who  has  wandered  over  the  mountains." 

"Water  he  needs  w^ho  comes  to  thy  table;  a 
towel  and  a  hospitable  welcome.  By  good  treat- 
ment thou  shalt  win  from  bim  good  words  and 
kindness  in  return," 


314  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

"With  arms  and  clothing  shall  friends  gladden 
each  other.  They  who  give  and  receive  gifts  in  re- 
turn, are  friends  the  longest,  if  all  other  things  be 
well." 

"  With  scorn  and  laughter  mock  not  the  stranger 
and  the  wayfarer.  lie  who  sits  at  his  own  door  is 
often  uncertain  who  it  may  be  that  comes  by." 

''  Scoff  not  the  guest  nor  spit  upon  him  from  the 
window !     Be  kind  to  the  poor." 

A  prudent  foresight  in  word  and  deed. 

"  The  wary  guest  who  comes  to  the  banquet  is  not 
wasteful  of  words  ;  he  listens  with  the  ear,  he  sees 
with  the  eye ;  thus  the  wise  man  feels  about  him." 

"  He  talks  too  much  who  never  ceases  his  vain 
flow  of  words.  The  flippant  tongue,  unless  it  be 
checked,  often  runs  itself  into  mischief." 

"  From  thy  weapons  on  tlie  field  move  not  a  foot- 
breadth  ;  for  it  is  uncertain  how  soon  upon  the  way 
out  the  sj)ear  may  be  needed." 

Temperance,  not  only  in  the  gratification  of  the 
senses,  but  in  the  exercise  of  power. 

"  Ko  heavier  burden  is  borne  by  man  than  immod- 
erate drinking ;  nor  is  ale  so  good  as  it  is  said  for 
the  sons  of  men.  The  more  one  drinks  the  less  he 
knows,  until  his  understandiug  is  gone." 

"  The  bird  of  forgctfulness  hovers  over  the  drink- 
ing room  and  steals  away  the  senses  of  men." 

"The  lierd  knows  when  to  go  home  and  it  leaves 
the  pasture  ;  but  the  foolish  man  knows  not  the  mea- 
sure of  his  stomach." 

"The  gluttonous  man,  unless  he  makes  use  of  his 
reason,  eats  his  own  death.  To  the  Wise  the  stom- 
ach of  the  stupid  man  often  brings  laughter." 


INFLUENCE   OF  THE   ASA-FAITH.  315 

"  His  iDOwer  the  wise  man  shall  wield  with  moder- 
ation !  This  he  finds  when  among  the  brave  he  has 
come,  that  no  one  excels  in  everything." 

Contentment  and  cheerfulness. 

"  Prudent  and  generous  be  the  sons  of  the  free- 
born,  and  bold  in  battle.  Cheerful  and  glad  let 
every  man  be  to  the  end  of  his  life." 

"The  heart  only  knows  what  dwells  the  heart 
nearest ;  it  alone  can  betray  itself.  There  is  no  dis- 
ease worse  for  the  brave  man  than  to  be  discontented 
with  his  lot." 

"  The  master  of  the  house  should  be  cheerful  at 
home,  kind  to  his  guests  and  circumspect ;  let  him 
be  attentive  and  affable." 

Modesty  and  politeness  of  intercourse. 

"  Thou  shalt  no  maiden  entice  nor  any  man's  wife, 
nor  urge  them  to  wantonness." 

"  The  fool  stares  when  he  comes  a  guest ;  he  talks 
with  himself  and  murmurs.  If  he  gets  a  drink  his 
whole  mind  is  opened." 

"  Washed  and  sated  should  a  man  ride  to  the  as- 
semblies, even  though  he  be  not  finely  dressed.  Of 
his  shoes  and  breeches  let  no  one  be  ashamed,  nor  of 
his  horse,  though  it  may  not  be  the  best." 

A  desire  to  win  the  good  will  of  our  fellow  men, 
especially  to  surround  one's  self  with  a  steadfast 
circle  of  devoted  kinsmen  and  faithful  friends. 

"The  tree  pines  away  which  stands  within  the 
village  ;  no  bark  nor  leaf  remains  to  shelter  it.  So 
is  it  with  the  man  whom  no  one  loves ;  why  shall  he 
live  long  ?" 

"  Seldom  stands  a  monumental  stone  by  the  way- 
side, unless  by  kinsman  raised  to  kinsman."  • 


dlO  RELIGION   OF  THE   NOETHMEN. 

"  Bear  thyself  iiTeproachably  toward  tliy  kinsfolk ; 
be  slow  to  avenge  thyself  on  them,  even  though  they 
injure  thee :  this,  it  is  said,  will  profit  thee  in 
death." 

A  careful  treatment  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

"  Carefully  gather  up  the  dead  wherever  on  earth 
thou  may  find  them,  whether  they  have  died  by 
sickness,  by  the  sea,  or  by  arms.  Kaise  up  a  mound 
for  the  de]3arted,  wash  the  hands  and  head,  comb 
and  dry  it  before  it  is  laid  in  the  coffin,  and  pray  for 
it  to  slee])  in  peace." 

The  remembrance  that  earthly  riches  are  perish- 
able, and  in  connection  therewith,  the  struggle  to 
gain  a  good  reputation  and  a  renown  which  shall 
reach  beyond  this  life  and  be  cherished  and  honored 
by  posterity. 

"  Wealth  is  like  the  glance  of  the  eye,  it  is  a  most 
unstable  friend." 

"Eiches  depart,  kindred  die,  man  himself  dies 
also;  but  a  good  name  dies  never  for  him  who 
gained  it." 

"  Eiches  depart,  kindred  die,  man  liimself  dies 
also;  but  one  thing  I  know  of  which  never  dies: 
the  Judgment  of  the  Dead." 

These  rules  of  life  were  variously  understood,  and 
as  variously  carried  out  into  practice.  But  on  the 
whole  we  find  them  reflected  in  the  popular  charac- 
ter of  the  Northmen,  such  as  history  teaches  it  to  us 
during  heatliendom.  Bravery,  prudence,  and  a  love 
of  indejDendence  are  its  bright  features,  although 
bravery  often  degenerated  into  warrior-fierceness, 
])rudence  into  dissimulation,  and  the  love  of  inde- 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE   ASA-FAITIl.  317 

pendence  into  self-will.  If  on  the  one  hand  we  find 
a  noble  self-command,  devoted  faithfulness  in  friend- 
ship and  love,  noble-hearted  hospitality  and  gene- 
rosity, a  love  of  right  and  of  legal  order,  we  also  see 
on  the  other,  nnyielding  stubbornness,  a  fierce  spirit 
of  revenge,  a  repulsive  arrogance,  a  far-reaching 
self-interest  and  an  excessive  dependence  npon  the 
formalities  of  the  law.  A  cold  and  unmoved  ex- 
terior often  concealed  a  soul  torn  by  the  bitterest 
grief,  or  stirred  up  by  the  wildest  passions.  A  pas- 
sionate outburst  of  joy,  or  of  grief,  was  considered 
undignified.  Few  words,  but  energetic  action,  was 
esteemed  in  conduct,  and  complaint  was  silenced  in 
order  that  vengeance  could  strike  the  more  surely 
and  heavily.  Under  a  tranquil,  indifferent  mien 
were  concealed  the  boldest  and  most  deep-laid  plans, 
and  the  real  intentions  first  came  to  light  in  the  de- 
cisive moment.  On  the  whole  there  was  certainly 
an  impress  of  rigidity,  insensibihty,  and  self-good- 
ness stamped  upon  the  popular  character;  but  this 
stamp  was  more  upon  the  outside  than  in  its  inner- 
most character,  more  the  result  of  inordinate  pru- 
dence than  of  an  evil  disposition ;  and  through  all  its 
failings  there  shines  forth  a  dignity  of  soul  which 
ennobled  power  and  held  up  glory  in  this  life  and  in 
after-ages  as  the  highest  object  of  human  under- 
takings. 


318  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 


CHAPTER  XXVin. 


DECLINE   OF  THE   ASA-FAITH. 


A  HISTORICAL  representation  of  the  development  of 
the  Asa-Faith  cannot  be  given.  As  its  origin  is  en- 
veloped in  total  darlmess,  so  is  the  period  of  its 
highest  glory  unknown  to  ns,  and  it  is  in  fact  only 
in  its  decline  and  fall  that  history  reveals  it  to  ns  as 
appearing  in  the  popular  life  and  acting  upon  it.  We 
know  not  what  revolutions  and  changes  the  system 
may  possibly  have  undergone  during  the  long  course 
of  centuries  in  which  the  faith  was  cherished  by  the 
Northmen,  but  that  these  changes  were  not  wholly 
unimportant,  and  moreover,  that  the  religion  was 
very  differently  understood  at  diflerent  times — now 
with  greater  warmth  and  a  more  special  reference 
to  its  deep  fundamental  ideas,  now  with  more  cold- 
ness and  more  immediately  in  reference  to  its  exter- 
nal form,  its  symbolic  dress — the  very  character  of 
the  religion  leads  us  to  presume. 

The  religion  which  draws  man  into  reflective 
meditation,  which,  as  it  were,  strives  to  separate 
him  from  the  finite  world  in  order  to  absorb  him  in 
the   contemplation   of  the   Infinite,   can  maintain 


DECLINE  OF  THE  ASA-FAITH.  319 

itself  through  a  long  course  of  centuries  with  unim- 
l)aired  power,  even  amid  violent  outward  convul- 
sions. But  the  Asa-faith  was  not  such  a  religion. 
It  is  evident,  on  the  contrary,  that  in  the  form  under 
which  we  know  it,  it  must  of  necessity  draw  its 
votaries  into  a  life  of  activity,  or  rather,  tear  them 
almost  involuntarily  out  into  the  wildest  tumult  of 
the  world.  History  shows  us  also  how  the  Ger- 
manic nations  in  earlier  times,  and  afterward  the 
N'orthmen,  inflamed  by  this  faith,  developed  a 
warlike  power  and  boldness  which  shook  Europe's 
former  social  fabric  to  its.  foundations — how  great 
hosts  of  Northmen  were  driven  by  this  faith  to  a 
Yiking-life  which  knew  no  home,  no  rest,  and  but 
few  of  the  milder  feelings  of  humanity ;  and  how 
the  warlike  spirit  among  them  toward  the  close  of 
heathendom  blazed  out  with  a  w^ild  ferocity  which, 
as  it  were,  consumed  itself. 

But  in  this  agitated  life,  w^hich  the  Asa-faith, 
although  it  did  not,  perhaps,  call  it  forth  from  the 
iirst,  yet  did  so  strongly  support,  there  lay  an  effec- 
tive germ,  not  only  of  changes  in  the  doctrines 
themselves,  but  more  especially  of  revolutions  in 
the  religious  opinions  of  its  votaries — revolutions 
which,  in  the  course  of  time,  w^ere,  of  necessity,  to 
involve  its  ?lecline  and  fall. 

The  Yiking's  life  and  uninterrupted  warfare  kept 
many  of  the  chieftains  and  large  troops  of  men  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  away  from  their  homes  and 
from  the  sanctuaries  of  the  people,  and  made  them 
by  degrees  foreign  and  indifferent  to  them,  while 
they,  at  the  same  time,  came  in  contact  with  people 


320  RELIGION   OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 

of  another  religion  and  other  customs.  Many  re- 
turned to  their  homes  with  contempt  at  heart  for 
the  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  as  free-thinkers  who 
had  become  accustomed  to  rely  upon  their  own 
powers  alone.  For  every  new  generation  that  grew 
up  in  that  wild  Yiking-life  the  faith  became  more 
powerless  and  insignificant.  They  persisted  in  their 
warrior-ferocity  from  habit  and  by  the  force  of 
example,  but  no  longer  directly  impelled  by  a 
longing  for  the  society  of  the  ^sir  and  the  joys  of 
Valhalla.  And  though  they  did  not  yet  give  up 
the  faith  entirely,  still  it  was  only  the  exterior,  the 
sensuous  form,  to  which  they  paid  attention.  It 
w^as  in  idols  and  sacrifices,  divination  and  sorcery, 
that  they  placed  confidence,  and  it  was  the  grossest 
superstition  that  formed  the  counterpart  to  the  free- 
thinking.  That  wild  life,  agitated  by  all  manner  of 
passions,  which  also  transferred  itself  to  their 
homes,  and  toward  the  close  of  heathendom  gained 
the  ascendency  everywhere  in  the  ]^orth,  could  not 
be  favorable  to  any  well-regulated  system  of  reli- 
gion whatever,  and  the  foundations  of  the  Asa-faith 
were  thus  undermined  by  the  very  spirit  which  it 
had  helped  to  awaken,  and  which  it  had  itself 
strongly  supj^torted. 

In  this  condition,  then,  we  find  the  Asa-faith  at 
the  period  when  history  first  j^roperly  makes  us 
acquainted  with  it — in  its  last  stage  of  existence. 
It  is  free-thinking  and  abject  superstition  which 
we  find  here  presented  as  the  counterpart  of  each 
other.  While  the  Korthmen  on  one  hand  wor- 
shiped stick  and  stone,  animals  and  dead  men,  and 


DECLINE   OF   THE   ASA-FAITH.  32t 

beliel'ed  tlieir  idols  to  find  sustenance  in  bloody 
sacrifices,  even  of  human  beings,  there  were  many, 
on  the  other  hand,  who  lived  without  God  and 
thoughtlessly  put  their  whole  trust  in  their  own 
power  and  strength.  There  were  some,  indeed,  who 
thought  more  deeply.  They  rejected  a  plurality  of 
Gods  and  put  their  trust  in  one  only  Supreme 
Being,  "  in  Him  who  created  the  Sun  and  all  things 
that  have  a  being."  In  this  Supreme  Being  the 
first  sovereign  king  of  Norway,  Harald  Harfagri, 
professed  to  believe.*  The  Icelandic  chieftain 
Thorkel  Mani  in  his  last  sickness  requested  to  be 
carried  into  the  rays  of  the  Sun,  where  he  com- 
mended his  soul  to  the  God  who  created  the  Sun. 
"And  he  had  led  as  virtuous  a  life  as  the  best 
Christian."t  The  Icelander  Thorstein  Ingemunds- 
son  said  to  his  brothers,  that  their  departed  father 
would  certainly  enjoy  a  blissful  reward  for  his  piety 
''  with  Ilim  wLo  created  the  Sun  and  all  the  world, 
whoever  He  may  be ;"  and  this  same  Being,  whom 
he  regarded  as  "  the  Mightiest,"  he  called  upon  to 
deliver  his  brothers  from  the  Berserksgang.;}:  The 
Asa  doctrine  itself,  with  its  not  indistinct  presenti- 
ments of  a  Being  higher  than  all  ^sir,  might 
aw^aken  such  conceptions  in  the  pious  and  contem- 
plative mind  who  felt  disgusted  with  the  gross 
superstition  of  the  times,  and  yet  was  not  willing  to 
give  up  every  consolation  of  Religion.  But  these 
few  individuals  could  not  contribute  anything  to 

*  Snor. :  Har.Hdrf.  S.  4. 

f  Landnmb.  I.  9. 

t  Vatnsd.  a  23;  37,  46. 


322  RELIGION   OF   THE   NORTHMEN. 

support  the  Asa-faith,  now  tottering  to  its  falh;  on 
the  contrary  it  was  they  who  left  it  tlie  most  hastily 
when  they  became  acquainted  with  Christianity. 

It  was  of  no  avail  that  the  zealous  Asa-worshipers 
portrayed  the  calamities  which  could  strike  one  or 
another  of  these  free-thinkers  as  a  punishment  be- 
cause he  did  not  bestow  upon  the  Gods  that  worship 
due  unto  them.  Xor  did  it  avail  any  more  that 
they  disclaimed  that  toleration  of  other  believers, 
which  otherwise  appears  to  have  been  a  character- 
istic of  the  votaries  of  the  Asa-doctrine,  and  sharp- 
ened the  severity  of  the  laws  against  those  who 
showed  disrespect  toward  the  Gods.  At  the  time 
when  Christianity  was  approaching  the  jSTorth,  the 
Asa-faith  no  longer  satisfied  the  more  deep-think- 
ing portion  of  the  people  who  were  nominally  its 
adlierents,  and,  therefore,  it  could  not  long  sustain  a 
conflict  with  the  new  faith,  when  that  faith  came  to 
be  promulgated  with  zeal  and  energy. 


APPEIDIX. 


Text  to  various  translations  from  the  Older  Edda 
on  the  foregoing  pages. 


On  page  121. 

Voluspa,  strophe  20. 
f)ser  log  log(5u, 
f)fer  lif  kuru 
alda  bornum, 
orlog  seggja. 

On  page  166. 

HelgakviSa  Hundingsbana  II.. 
sir.  32. 

^r  ertu,  systir ! 
ok  ervita, 
er  J)(a  bra^r  J)inum 
bi5r  forskapa ; 
einn  reldr  66inn 
olhi  bolvi, 

f)viat  me5  sifjungum 
sakrunar  bar. 

On  page  188. 

Ailamal,  str.  19. 

Orn  hug^a  ek  her  inn  fljrtga 
at  endlongu  hiisi, 
f)at  mun  oss  drjtjgt  deilask  ; 
dreif^i  hann  oss  oil  bl65i, 
hug5a  ek  af  heitum 
at  vfcri  hamr  Atla. 

On  page  206. 
HjndluljoS,  str.  10. 
Horg  hann  mer  gerOi 


hlaSinn  stelntim, 
— nil  er  grjot  f)at 
at  gleri  vor5it — 
rail 5  hann  i  nyju 
nauta  bl66i, 
aj  tru5i  Ottar 
a  ^synjur. 

On  page  240. 

Volundarkvi5a,  str.  31. 

Ei5a  ekaltu  mer  ci6r 
alia  vinna, 
at  skips  bor5i 
ok  at  skjaldar  rond, 
at  mars  ba^gi 
ok  at  mffikis  egg : 
at  J)U  kveljat 
kv6n  Volundar, 
ne  briiOi  minni 
at  bana  verOir. 

On  page  240. 

Helgakv.  Hundingsl).  IL,  str.  29. 

|)ik  skyli  allir 
eiSar  bita, 
{)eir  er  Helga 
hafSir  unna ; 
at  enu  Ijosa 
leiptrar  vatnJ, 
ok  at  ursvolum 
unnar  steini. 


324 


APPENDIX. 


On  page  241. 
AtlakviSa,  str.  30. 
SvS  ganp^i  f)er,  Atli ! 
sem  ][)ii  vi5  Gunnar  dttir 
ei6a  opt  urn  svar5a 
ok  ^r  of  nefnda, 
at  sol  inni  su5rli6llii 
ok  at  Sigtys  bergi, 
liulkvi  livilbe5jar, 
ok  at  hringi  Ullar. 

Ox  PAGE  241. 
Atlamdl,  str.  31. 
S6r  ])a  Yingi, 
ser  re5  hann  litt  eira : 
"  eigi  hann  jotnar, 
ef  hann  at  ySr  lygi, 
gdlgi  gorvallan, 
ef  hann  d  gri5  liygSi." 

On  page  311. 
H^vamdl,  str.  134. 
Lostu  ok  kosti 
bera  lj65a  synir 
Llandna  brj6stum  i ; 
erat  ma5i'  svd  g65r 
at  galli  ne  fylgi, 
w€  sv^  illr  at  einugi  dugi. 

lb.  str.  22. 
6svi5r  ma5r  vakii* 
urn  allar  n;ptr 
ok  hyggr  at  hvivetna; 
J)d  er  ni65r 
er  at  morni  kemr, 
alt  er  vil  sem  var. 

lb.  str.  14. 
f)agalt  ok  lingalt 
skyli  f)j6('5ans  barn 
ok  vigdjarft  vera. 

lb.  str.  15. 
6snjallr  maCr 
hyggsk  munu  ey  lifa, 
ef  hann  viO  vig  varask; 
enn  elli  gcfr 
hcinnm  engi  fri5, 
f)6tt  hdniini  geirar  gefi. 


lb.  str.  6. 

*  *  *  obrigSra  via 
far  ma5r  aldregi 
en  manvit  mikit. 


lb.  str.  9. 

Sd  er  sJvU 
er  sjdlfr  um  ci 
lof  ok  vit  me5an  lifir ; 
J)viat  ill  rkb  hefir 
niaSr  opt  f)egit 
annars  brj6stum  or. 


Ih.  str.  35. 

Bii  er  betra, 
J)6tt  litit  se, 
hair  er  heima  hverr; 
J)6tt  tvffir  geitr  eigi 
ok  taugreptan  sal, 
J)at  er  ^6  betra  en  boen. 

On  page  312. 

Havamdl,  str.  30. 
Bu  er  betra, 
J»6tt  litit  so, 
hair  er  heima  hverr; 
bl65ugt  er  hjarta 
J)eim  er  bii'Sja  skal 
scr  1  mcil  hvert  matar. 

lb.  str.  58. 

Ar  skal  risa 
sd  er  d,  yrkendr  fa, 
ok  ganga  sins  verka  ti  vit : 
mart  um  dvelr  J)ann 
er  um  margin  sefr, 
hdlfr  er  aubr  und  hviitum. 


Sigrdrifum(il,  sir.  23. 

J^at  ra'd  ek  f)er  annat, 
at  {)u  ei5  ne  sverir 
nemr  J)ann  er  sa5r  se; 
grimmar  simar 
ganga  at  trygSrofi, 
I  armr  er  vara  vargr. 


APPENDIX. 


325 


IMvaradl,  str.  42. 
Yin  siDum  skal 
maSr  vinr  vera, 
^eim  ok  |)es3  vin ; 
en  ovinar  sins 
skyli  engi  ma6r 
vinar  vinr  vera. 

lb.  str.  43. 
Veiztu  ef  J)u  vin  dtt, 
|)ann  er  J)U  vel  truir, 
ok  vill  |)u  af  liajium  gott  geta? 
ge5i  skaltu  vi6  f)ann  blanda 
ok  gjofum  skipta, 
fara  at  finna  opt. 

lb.  str.  44. 
Ef  J)ii  fitt  annan, 
J)anns  J)ii  ilia  truir, 
vildu  af  hanum  |)6  gott  geta; 
fagrt  skaltu  vi6  J)ann  mfela, 
enn  fldtt  hyggja, 
ok  gjalda  lausung  vi5  lygi. 

lb.  str.  122. 
Vin  J)inuni 
ver  J)U  aldregi 
fyrri  at  flaumslitum ; 
sorg  etr  hjarta, 
ef  f  u  segja  ne  ndir 
einhverjum  allan  hug. 

lb.  str.  128. 
Hvars  |)u  bol  kant 
kveS  |)u  {)er  bolvi  at, 
ok  gefat  J)Inum  fjdndum  fri5. 

lb.  str.  131. 

Ef  |)u  vilt  Jier  g&da  konu 
kve5ja  at  gamanrunum, 
ok  fd  fognu5  af ; 
fogru  skaldu  heita, 
ok  Idta  fast  vera, 
lei5isk  mangi  gott  ef  getr. 

On  page  313. 
Hdvamdl,  str.  120. 
Yeiztu  ef  {)u  vin  dtt, 
J>4nns  J)u  vel  truir, 
15 


farSu  at  finna  opt ; 
Jjviat  hrisi  vex 
ok  hdvu  grasi 
vegi,  ervietki  treSr. 

lb.  str.  46. 

Ungr  var  ek  forSum, 
f6r  ek  einn  saman, 
|)d  var6  ek  villr  vega ; 
au6igr  |)&ttumk, 
er  ek  annan  fann : 
maSr  er  manns  gaman. 

lb.  str.  125. 

Sifjum  er  f)d  blandat, 
hverr  er  segjr  rseSr 
einum  allan  hug ; 
alt  er  betra 
en  se  brigSum  at  vera 
era  sa  vinr  oSrum  er  vilt  eitt  segir. 

lb.  str.  83. 
Meyjar  or6um 
skyli  manngi  trua, 
ne  J)vi  er  kveSr  kona; 
Jjviat  6  hverfanda  hveli 
v6ru  {)eim  hjortu  skopu5, 
brig6  i  brjost  um  lagit. 

lb.  str.  129. 

Illu  feginn 
ver  |)u  aldregi, 
enn  Idt  f)er  at  g65u  getiS. 

lb.  str.  135. 

At  lidrum  J>ul 
hire  J)u  aldregi, 

opt  er  gott  J)at  er  gamlir  kvefia; 
opt  or  skorpum  belg 
skilin  orO  koma. 

lb.  str.  3. 
Elds  er  )>orf 
J)eims  inn  er  kominn 
ok  d  ku6  kalinn; 
Matar  ok  viiSa 
er  manni  J)orf, 
J)eim  er  hefir  um  fjall  fari5. 


326 


APPENDIX. 


lb.  sir.  4. 
Vatns  er  |)orf 
T)eim  er  til  ver5ar  kemr, 
j)erru  ok  })j661a5ar, 
g65s  um  teSis, 
ef  66r  geta  mtctti 
or5s  ok  endr])ogu. 

On  page  314. 
lb.  str.  40. 
Vdpnum  ok  va&um 
skolu  viair  gle5jask, 
bat  er  a  sjalfum  synst ; 
vi5rgefendr  ok  endrgefendr 
erusk  Wngst  viair, 
ef  J)at  ui5r  at  ver6a  vel. 

lb.  str.  133. 
At  baOi  ne  blatri 
bafSu  aldregi 
gest  ne  ganganda; 
opt  vitu  ogofla 
|)eir  er  sitja  inni  fyrir, 
hvers  >eir  'ro  kyns  er  koma. 

lb.  str.  136. 
Gest  |)u  ne  geyja 
ne  a  grind  brajkir 
get  J)u  valu5um  vel. 

lb.  str.  1. 
Enn  vari  gestr 
er  til  ver^ar  kemr 
j)unnu  hlj66i  l)egir; 
cyrum  lily5ir 
en  augum  sko5ar; 
sva  nysisk  fr65ra  liverr  fyrir. 

lb.  str.  28. 
^rna  moelir 
s^i  er  aiva  |)egir 
staMausu  stafi ; 
hraSinjclt  tunga,  _ 
nema  hablendr  eigi, 
opt  ser  ogott  um  gelr. 

lb.  str.  37. 
Viipnum  sinum 
skala  uiaOr  velli  a 


feti  ganga  framar; 
J)viat  ovist  er  at  vita, 
nfer  verSr  a  veguni  uti 
geirs  um  |)orf  guma. 

lb.  Str.  11. 
Vegnest  verra 
vegra  hann  velli  at, 
en  se  ofdrykkja  ols; 
era  sva  gott, 
sem  gott  kveSa, 
ol  alda  sona: 
jjviat  f?era  veit    * 
er  fleira  drekkr 
sins  til  ge5s  gumi. 


lb. 


12. 


6minnis  hegri  beitir 
sa  er  yfir  olSrum  {)rumir, 
bann  stelr  ge6i  guma, 

lb.  str.  20. 
Hjar5ir  ])  at  vitu, 
nffir  |)ffir  beim  skolu, 
ok  ganga  J)a  af  grasi, 
en  osvi&r  ma5r 
kann  CBvagi 
sins  um  mals  maga. 

lb.  str.  19. 
GraSugr  balr, 
nema  ge5s  viti, 
etr  ser  aldrtrega; 
opt  faM-  bUogis, 
er  me6  borskum  kemr, 
Manni  beimskum  magi. 

On  page  315. 
lb.  str.  03. 
Riki  sitt  skyli 
raSsnotra  bverr 
i  boti  bafa ; 
J)a  bann  Jmt  finnr, 
er  mc5  fra>knum  kemr, 
at  engi  er  einna  bvatastr. 

lb.  str.  14. 
J)agalt  ok  bugalt 
skyli"i)ju5an8  barn 


APPENDIX. 


327 


ok  vigdjarft  vera ; 
glaSr  ok  reifr 
skyli  gumna  hverr 
unz  sinn  bi5r  bana. 

lb.  str.  94. 
Hugr  einn  f)at  veit, 
er  byr  lijarta  n?er, 
einn  er  hann  ser  um  seva; 
ong  er  s6tt  verri 
hveim  snotrum  raanni 
en  ser  ongu^at  iina. 

lb.  str.  102. 
Heima  gla5r  gnmi 
ok  vi6  gesti  reifr 
svi5r  skal  um  sik  vera ; 
minnigr  ok  malugr. 

Sigrdrifumal,  atr.  32. 
Mey  J)u  teygjat 
ne  manns  konu 
ne  eggja  ofgamans. 

Havamal,  str.  16. 
Ivopir  afglapi, 
er  til  kynnis  kemr, 
|)ylsk  hann  um  e5a  J)rumir ; 
alt  er  senn 
ef  ban  sylg  um  getr, 
uppi  er  J^a  ge5  guma. 

lb.  sir.  60. 
^veginn  ok  mettr 
ri5i  mac5r  |)ingi  at, 
J)6tt  hann  se6  va.^ddr  til  vel 
skua  ok  bruka 
skararnisk  engi  ma5r, 
ne  bests  in  heldr, 
J)6tt  hann  hafit  g65an. 

lb.  str.  49. 
Hrornar  |)oll 
su  er  stendr  f)orpi  a, 
hlyrat  henni  borkr  ne  barr ; 
sva  er  maOr  sa 
er  manngi  ann, 
livat  skal  hann  lengi  Ufa? 


lb.  str.  11. 
Sjaldan  bautarsteinar 
standa  brautu  uter, 
nema  reisi  niCr  at  ni5. 

On  page  316. 
Sigrdrifumal,  str.  22. 
f)at  roe5  ek  |)er  i5  fyrsta, 
at  J)u  vi5  frsendr  J)ina 
vammalaust  verir; 
8i6r  f)u  hefnir, 
f)6tt  J)eir  sakar  gori, 
|)at  kve5a  dau5um  duga. 

lb.  str.  33. 

f)at  rtab  ek  J)er  it  niunda, 
at  |)u  nam  bjargir, 
hvars  J)u  a  foldu  finnr; 
hvart  eru  s6ttdau5ir 
e5a  sajdauSir, 
e6a  'ro  vapndau5ir  verar. 

34.  Haug  skal  gora 
hveim  er  liSinn  er, 
hendr  |)va  ok  hofu5; 
kemba  ok  Jjerra, 
ji5r  i  kistu  fari, 
ok  bi5ja  sailin  sofa. 

Havamal,  str.  77. 
Sva  er  au5r 
sem  augabragS, 
hann  er  valtastr  vina. 

lb.  str.  75. 
Deyr  fe, 
deyja  fra^ndr, 
deyr  sjalfr  it  sama ; 
en  orSstirr 
deyr  aldregi, 
hveim  er  ser  goSan  getr. 

lb.  str.  7G. 
Deyr  fe, 
deyja  framdr, 
deyr  sjalfr  it  sama; 
ek  veit  einn 
at  aldri  deyr : 
dumr  um  dauSan  hvern. 


328  APPENDIX. 


EXTRACT  FROM  EGIL'S  SAGA, 

Chap.  68,  quoted  on  pp.  242-245. 
Egill  drap  Ljot  Tiinn  Bleikna. 

J)EiR  J)6rsteinii  ok  Egill  bjnggu  fer5  sina  jDegar 
J)eir  liofSu  lokit  erendum  simim,  fara  J)eir  |)a  aptr  a 
lei5,  ok  er  J)eir  koma  su5r  um  Dofra-fjall  J)a  segir 
Eo;ill  at  liann  vill  fara  ofan  til  Eaumsdals  ok  si5au 
su5r  sunda  lei5  :  "  Yil  ek,"  segir  liann,  "luka  eren- 
dum minum  i  Sogni  ok  a  IIor5alandi,  Jiviat  ek  vil 
bua  skip  mitt  i  snmar  til  Islands  ut."  J)6rsteinn 
ba5  liann  ra5a  fer5  sinni ;  skiljast  Jeir  J)6rsteinn  ok 
Egill,  for  J)6rsteinn  su5r  nmDali  ok  alia  lei5  til  f)ess 
er  liann  kom  til  bua  sinna.  *  *  *^  Egill  for 
lei5ar  sinnar  ok  J)eir  xij.  saman,  komii  feir  fram  i 
Ranmsdal,  fingu  ser  Joa  flutningar ;  foru  si5an  sn5r 
a  Maeri ;  er  ekki  sagt  fra  fer5  f)eirra  fjrir  enn  f)eir 
komu  i  ey  J)a  er  IIan5  lieitir,  ok  foru  til  gistingar  a 
bse  J)ann  er  lieitir  a  Blindheimi,  J)at  var  gofugr 
been*,  far  bjo  lendr-ma5r  er  Eri6geir  liet;  hann 
Yar  ungr  at  aldri,  liaf5i  nytekit  vit  fo5rarsi  sinum. 
M65ir  bans  bet  G-j5a,  hon  var  systir  Arinbjarnar 
hersis,  skorungr  mikill  ok  gofug  kona ;  bon  var  at 


APPENDIX.  320 

rau5iun  ine5  syni  siniim  rri5geiri,  liuf5u  fan  Jar 
ransnar-Lii  iiiikit. 

|)a  feiigu  J)eir  allg65ar  vi5tokiir,  sat  Egill  imi 
kveldit  it  nsesta  FriSgeiri  ok  forimautar  bans  {)ar 
utar  fra;  var  far  drykkja  mikil  ok  dyrlig  veizla. 
Gj5a  Imsfreyja  gekk  urn  kveldit  til  tals  Yi5  Egil ; 
lion  spiir5i  at  Arinbirni  br65r  sinum  ok  eun  at 
fieirum  fraendnm  sinum  ok  vinnm  beim  er  til  Eno-- 
lands  bof5u  farit  me5  Arinbirni ;  Egill  sag6i  benni 
f)at  sem  bon  spiir5i.  Hon  spiir5i  bvat  til  tiSenda 
bef5i  gjorast  i  fer5uni  Egils.  Han  segir  benni  af 
Ijosasta ;  J)a  kva5  bann  : 

"UrSumstlei^  in  Ijotca 
Landbei$a$ar  reiSi 
Sigrat  gankr  ef  Glamma 
Gamma  veit  um  sik  J^ramma." 

Egill  var  alkatr  nm  kveldit,  enn  FriSgeir  ok 
beimamenn  voru  beldr  blj65r.  Egill  sa  f)ar  mey 
fagra  ok  vel  biina,  bonum  var  sagt  at  lion  var  systir 
Fri5geirs;  ni?erinn  var  okat  ok  gret  einart  nm 
kveldit,  f)at  fotti  Jeim  nndarligt  f)ar  voru  feir  nm 
nottina.  En  nm  inorgininn  var  ve5r  livast  ok  eigi 
seefeert,  ]::)ar  fnrftu  J)eir  fnv  or  eyjnnni.  J)a  gekk 
Fri5geir  ok  b£e5i  fan  bonum  J)ar  at  sitja  me5  foru- 
nauta  sina  til  J) ess  er  gott  veri  fteri-ve5r  ok  bafa 
J)a5an  fara-beina  |)ann  sem  J)eir  fyrfti.  Egill 
J)ektist  f)at,  satu  feir  {)ar  ve5r-festir  iij.  ncetr  ok  var 
f)ar  binn  inesti  mannfagna5r.  Eptir  ger5u  ve5r 
Ij^gnt,  st65u  feir  Egill  fa  upp  snemma  um  mor- 
gininn  ok  bjuggust,  gingu  fa  til  matar  ok  var  f eim 
gefit  ol  at  drekka,  ok  satu  feir  um  bri5  :  si5an  toku 


330  APPENDIX. 

f)eir  kl8e5i  sin.  Egill  st65  upp  ok  J)alvka5i  bonda  ok 
liiisfrejju  beina  sinn,  ok  gengu  si5an  lit ;  bondi  ok 
in65ir  bans  gengu  a  gantu  me5  feim.  {)a  gekk 
Gy5a  til  mals  vi5  FriSgeir  son  sinn  ok  tala5i  vi5 
bann  lagt ;  Egill  st65  me5an  ok  bei5  Jeirra.  Egill 
msellti  Yi5  meyna :  "Hvat  gr^tr  J)ii  m^er?  ek  se 
J)ik  aldri  kata."  Hon  matti  engu  svara,  ok  gret  at 
meiiT.  Fri5geir  segir  at  m65nr  sinni  batt:  ''ekki 
vil  ek  nil  bi5ja  J^ess  ;  f)eir  eru  nu  biinir  fer5ar  sin- 
nar.  J)a  gekk  Gy5a  at  Egli  ok  mssllti :  "  ek  mun 
segja  |)er,  Egill,  ti5endi,  J)an  sem  ber  eru  me5  oss. 
Ma5r  beitir  Ljotr  hinn  hleihi^  bann  er  berserkr  ok 
bolmgongu-maSr,  bann  er  6{)okku-s8ell ;  bann  kom 
ber  ok  ba5  dottnr  minnar,  en  ver  svornSum  bonum 
skjott  ok  "sjnjuSum  bonum  ra5sins.  Si5an  skora5i 
bann  til  bolmgongu  a  Fri5geir  son  minn,  ok  skal  a 
morginn  koma  til  bolmsins  i  ej  |)a  er  Yorl  beitir. 
Nil  vilda  ek,  Egill,  at  fii  fserir  til  bolmsins  me5 
Fri5geiri ;  mundi  J^at  sannast  ef  Arinbjorn  veri  ber 
i  landi  at  ver  mundim  eigi  |)ola  ofriki  slikum  manni 
sem  Ljotr  er."  Egill  segir,  "  skjlt  er  J)at,  busfrevja, 
fjri  sakir  Arinbjarnar  frcenda  J)ins  at  ek  fara,  ef 
bonum  J)ikir  s.cr  J)at  nokkut  fuUtlng."  "  J)a  gerir 
f)ii  vel,"  segir  Gj5a ;  "  skulu  ver  J)a  ganga  inn  i 
stufu  ok  vera  oil  saman  daglangt."  Ganga  f  eir 
Egil  J)a  inn  i  stufu,  ok  drukku,  satu  f;)eir  far  um 
daginn.  En  at  kveldi  komu  vinir  FriSgeirs  Jieir 
er  til  fer5ar  voru  ra5nir  me5  bonum,  ok  var  J)ar 
Ijolment  um  nottina,  ok  var  J)ar  ])a  veizla  mikil. 
En  eptir  um  daginn  bjost  Fri5geir  til  ferSar  ok 
mart  manna  me5  bonum ;  var  J^ar  Egil  i  for.  J)a 
var  gott  fa3ri-ve5r ;  fara  f)eir  si5an  ok  koma  i  eyna  ; 


APPENDIX.  331 

far  var  fagr  voUr  skamt  fra  sjonum  er  liolinstefnan 
skyldi  vera,  var  {)ar  marka5r  h6lmsta5r,  lag5ir 
steimar  i  hriiig  iitan  um.  ISTu  kom  f)ar  Ljotr  nie5 
115  sltt ;  bjozt  bann  J)a  til  holmgongu ;  liann  liaf5i 
skjold  ok  sver5.  Ljotr  var  allmikil  ina5r  ok  sterk- 
ligr,  ok  er  lianii  gekk  fram  a  volllnn  at  liolmsta5- 
imm  f)a  kom  a  lianii  berserksgangr ;  tok  bann  at 
grenja  illiliga  ok  belt  I  skold  slnn.  FrlSgeir  var 
ekkl  mikill,  grannligr  ok  fri5r  sjomim,  ok  ekkl 
sta5it  i  bar5ogiim.  En  er  Egill  sa  Ljot  J)a  kva5 
liann  visii : 

"Era  FriSgeiri  faeri 
(Faurum  motst  a  vit  sorvar, 
Skolum  banna  mjog  manni 
Mey)  aurleygi  at  heyja 
Vit  J)ann  er  bitr  ok  blotar 
Bond  el-hvotuS  Gondlar 
Al-feigum  skytr  segir 
Augum  skjold  a  baugi." 

Ljotr  sa  livar  Egill  st65,  ok  beyr5i  or5  bans  ;  bann 
maelti:  "gakk  big  at  binn  mikli  ma5r  a  bolmiini, 
ok  berzt  vit  mik  ef  Jdu.  ert  allfiiss  til !  er  f)at  mikhi 
'jafnligra  enn  ek  berjumst  vit  Fri5geir,  {jviat  ek 
{)ikjumst  eigi  at  meiri  ma6r  {)6  at  ek  leggi  bann  at 
jor5u.     |)a  kva5  Egill : 

•'  Erat  litillar  Ljoti 
Leik  ek  viS  hal  bleikan, 
Vi$  bifteini  boenar 
Brynju  r6tt  synja. 
Buumst  til  vigs!  en  vajgSar 
Van  letka  ek  hanum. 
Skapa  verSum  vi$  skjaldi 
Skaeru,  drengr,  a  moeri." 


332  APPENDIX. 

Si5an  bjost  Egill  til  liulmgoiigii  vi5  Ljut.  Egill 
liaf5i  skjold  f)ann  sem  liaini  var  vanr  at  hafa,  en 
liann  var  gyr5r  sver5i  jyvi  er  hann  kalla5i  Nahr^  en 
hann  liafSi  Dragvandil  i  hendi.  Hann  gekk  inn 
yfir  mark  f)at  er  liolmstefnan  skyldi  vera  ;  en  Ljutr 
var  {)ar  eigi  buinn.  Egill  skok  sver5it  ok  kva5 
visn : 

"Hoggum  hjalt-vond  skyg^um ; 
Hoefum  rond  me$  brandi ; 
Reynum  rauSar  nifini ; 
Ejo^um  sverS  I  blu^i. 
Styfum  Ljot  af  lifi  ; 
Leikum  sart  vi$  bleikan  ; 
Kyrruin  kappa  errinn 
(Komi  auru  a  lira?)  jarnum." 

f)a  kom  Ljotr  fram  a  vigvollinn  ok  segir  upp 
holmgongulog,  "  at  sa  skal  bera  ni5ings-nafti  jafnan 
si6an  er  ut  liopar  nm  marksteina  J) a  er  npp  eru 
settir  i  bring  nm  bolmgongn  sta5inn  ;"  si5an  rennast 
f)eir  at,  ok  boggr  Egill  til  Ljotr  bra  vi5  skildinnm. 
En  Egill  hjo  bvert  bogg  at  o5rn  sva  at  Ljotr  fekk 
ekki  boggit  i  moti.  Ilann  bopa5i  nndan  til  bogg- 
rumsins,  en  Egill  for  jamskjott  eptir  ok  bjo  sem 
akafast.  Ljotr  ior  lit  nm  marksteinana  ok  viSa  nm 
vollinn  ;  gekk  sva  bin  fjrsta  bri6.  |)a  bei5ist  Ljotr 
bvil5ar.  Egill  let  J)at  ok  vera ;  nema  feir  J)a  sta5, 
ok  bvil5n  sik.     J)a  kva5  Egill : 

"Fyri  f)iki  mhv  fura 
Flein  stokkvandi  luikkvat 
(Ilrop^ist  hodda  beiSir  ?) 
Happlauss  fura  kappi. 
Vegrat  fast  sa  er  fi-estar 
Flein-doggvar  stafr  hoggum. 
ViibeySan  for  vi^au 
Voll  fyri  rotuuin  skalla." 


APPENDIX.  333 

J)at  Yorii  liolmgongnlog  i  Jann  tima,  at  sa  er 
skorar  a  mann  annan  til  einshvers  hhitar,  ok  feiigi 
sa  sigr  er  askora5i,  J)a  skyldi  sa  hafa  sigrmal  f)at  er 
hann  haf5i  til  skora5;  en  ef  hann  fengi  osigr,  J^a 
skyldi  hann  leysa  sik  Jvilika  fc  sem  akve5it  veri ; 
en  ef  hann  felli  a  holmi,  J) a  haf5i  hann  fyrirgjort 
allri  eigu  sinni,  ok  skyldi  sa  taka  arf  er  hann  felldi 
a  holmi.  Egill  ba5  at  Ljotr  skyldi  biiinn  ver5a : 
"vil  ek  at  Yi5  reynini  nii  holmgongu  f)essa."  Ljotr 
spratt  J^a  skjott  a  fetr.  |)a  hljop  Egill  at  honum  ok 
hjo  ]3egar  til  hans,  gekk  hann  J) a  sva  nrer  honum  at 
hann  hrankk  fyrir  ok  bar  J) a  skjoldinn  af  honum . 
{)a  hjo  Egill  til  Ljots  ok  kom  a  fyrir  ofan  kne,  ok 
tokaffotinn;  fell  Ljotr  Jar  ok  fegar  erendr.  |)a 
gekk  Egill  far  til  er  J)eir  Fri5geir  voru ;  var  J:)etta 
verk  honum  allvel  f^akkat.     J)a  kva5  Egill : 

"Fell  sa  er  flest  hit  Ilia 
(Fot  hjo  skald  af  Ljoti), 
Ulfgrennir  hefir  uunit; 
Eir  veittag  FriSgeiri. 
Sekja  ek  16ns  til  launa 
Log  brjotanda  i  moti ; 
Jafnt  var  mfer  i  gny  geira 
Gamanleikr  viS  hal  bleikan." 

Ljotr  var  litt  harm5andi  af  monnum,  Jn'iat  hann 
haf5i  verit  hinn  mesti  6eiru-ma5r.  Hann  *  yar 
Svasnskr  at  ?ett  ok  atti  engva  froendr  Jar  i  landi ; 
hann  haf5i  komit  Jangat  ok  aflat  ser  fjtir  a  holm- 
gongum.  Hann  hafSi  fellt  marga  g65a  bamdr  ok 
skorat  a5r  a  Ja  til  holmgongu  ok  til  jar5a  Jeirra  ok 
65ala,  ok  A^ar  Ja  Yor5inn  st6rau5igr  b?e6i  at  londum 

ok  lausum  aurum. 
15-^ 


334  APPENDIX. 

Egill  for  licim  mc5  Fri5geiri  af  liulnistefnunni, 
dvaldist  hann  J)ar  J)a  litta  liri5  a5r  liaini  fur  su5r  a 
Mseri ;  skyldust  J)eir  Egill  ok  Fri5geir  me5  mikluni 
koerleik,  bau5  Egill  Fri5geiri  iim  at  lieimta  jar^ir 
fcer  er  Ljotr  liaf5i  att. 


INDEX 


Adam  of  Bremen,  a  historian  of 
the  12th  century,  14 — alludes 
to  America,  80— to  the  temple 
atUpsala,  175,  198,211. 

Adelung,  30. 

Adils,  asking  of  Upsala,  185. 

Afzelius,  32. 

Al-fa5ir  (OSinn),  90,  93,  112,127. 

Alfar  (Elves),  179,  193-5. 

Alfheimr,  the  abode  of  Frey,  95, 
134,  139 — the  home  of  the 
Light  Elves,  123,  134. 

Alfrek,  a  king  of  IIor5aland,  178. 

Alvismal,  an  Eddaic  poem,  47 — 
quoted  299. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  quoted, 
282. 

Angrbo5a,  98,  143. 

Antiquarian  researches  in  Ice- 
land, 14,  15;— by  Arngrim  and 
Brynjulf,  16, 17  ;— by  Torfajus, 
17^  1^1 — by  Arnas  Magnreus, 
17,  22,  23 ; — by  the  Danish 
Government,  18;— by  the 
Swedes,  18,  19. 

Antiquarians  of  Germany,  29,  30  ; 
—of  Norway,  37  ;— of  Sweden, 
19,  37. 

Antiquaries,  the  Royal  Society 
of  Northern,  33,  37,  38,  39,  77. 

Antiquitates  Americana^,   39,  77. 

Apparitions,  belief  in,  303-305. 

Aptrganga  (see  Apparitions),  303. 

Arna-Magnwan  Commission,  23, 
32,  34.  ,,     ^ 

Arnas  Magnseus,  18— collects  a 
large  quantity  of  old  MSS.,  and 
lays  the  foundation  of  tlie 
Arna-Magnroan  Commission, 
22-3. 


Arngrimr  Jonsson,  finder  of  the 
Edda,  16,  17,  56. 

Arnkiel's  Cirabrian  Mythology, 
29. 

Aron  Hjorleifsson's  Saga,  71. 

Arwidsson,  37. 

AsgarSr,  the  abode  of  the  gods, 
93,  122;— the  earthly,  lo7, 
159. 

Ash,  the,  a  sacred  tree,  from 
which  the  first  human  pair 
were  formed,  91,  115. 

Askr,  the  first  man,  91,  115. 

Asynjur,  the  Goddesses,  96,  126  ; 
—worship  of,  177,  178. 

AtlakviSa,  an  Eddaic  poem,  54 ; 
— quoted,  241. 

Atlamal,  an  Eddaic  poem,  54;— 
quoted,  183,188,  241. 

Atlantica  of  Rudbeck,  traces  the 
legends  and  learning  of  the 
Greeks  to  Scandinavia,  19,  20. 

Atli,  51,  53,  54,  188,  241. 

Attila  (Atli),  51. 

Aa5humla,  the  mythic  cow,  re- 
presenting the  elementary  prin- 
ciple of  material  life,  89,  111, 
112;— traces  of  its  worship, 
232.  ,      ^ 

Austri  (the  East),  one  of  the  four 
dwarves  which  support  the 
sky,  91. 

Baldur,  94,  135.  145;— his  death, 
99,  144; — return  from  the 
realms  of  death,  103,  152;— 
poems  relating  to,  28,  44,  45 ; 
—worship  of,  176;  statues  of, 

199. 
Bardic  School,  in  Germany,  30. 


336 


INDEX. 


Bartholin's    Antiquities,     18; — 

translated,  29. 
Beri^risar  (mountain  giants),  89, 

111,  113. 
Berserkir,  253. 
Bifrost,  the  Rainbow,  the  bridge 

from  earth  to  heaven,  90,  95, 

114. 
Biographical  Sagas,  67-72. 
Bjarni  Herjulfsson,  first  discover- 
er of  America,  78,  79. 
Boar,   the,   sacred    to   Frey,   95, 

134, 176. 
Bragarfulli,  the  full  horn,  sacred 

to  Bragi,  note,  176,  177. 
BragaracSr,  second  part   of  the 

Later  Edda,  containing  mytho- 
logical ideas,  57. 
Bragi,  the  god  of  Poetr}^,  95,  135; 

— worship  of,  177. 
BreiSablik,  the  dwelling  of  Bal- 

dur,  94,  144. 
Brei6afjor6r,  a  firth  in  western 

Iceland,  71,  192,  207. 
Brynjulf  Sveinsson,  discoverer  of 

the  poetic  Edda,  16,  17,  42,  56. 
Buri,  Burr,  Bor,  89,  112. 

Calendar,  based  on  the  Asa  My- 
thology, by  Finn  Magnusen, 
note,  140. 

Cat,  the,  sacred  to  Frejja,  96, 
135. 

Chronicles  of  the  Danish  Kings 
first  published,  15. 

Classes,  different,  mythic  origin 
of,  49,  50. 

Cold,  the  symbol  of  evil,  89,  110, 
116. 

Cottle's  translation  of  the  Edda, 
40. 

Cow,  the,  Avorship  of,   231,  232. 

Creation,  44  ; — of  chaotic  matter, 

89,  111,   154;— of  the   world, 

90,  112,  113,  154;— of  the  sun, 
moon  and  stars,  90,  91,  114. 

Creutzer's  Symbolik,  34. 
Criticism   in   mythological    stu- 
dies, 22,  26-6,  31-2. 


Dalin's  History  of  Sweden,  27. 

Delius,  against  the  Edda,  30. 

Dellingr,  the  dawn,  the  father  of 
Day,  90,  114. 

Denis'  'Songs'  and  translations, 
30. 

Diar,  Gods,  127; — priests  of  an- 
cient Asgard  who  accompa- 
nied Odin  into  the  North,  159. 

Dlsir,  inferior  goddesses,  127, 
179,  181  ; — sacrifices,  184-5. 

D5kkalfar  (dark  elves),  193. 

Dragons,  302. 

Draumkonur,  179. 

Dreams,  188,  293-4. 

Droplauga-sonar  Saga,  quoted, 
255. 

Drottnar,  rulers  and  priests  in 
the  earliest  ages,  159-160. 

Dualism,  pervades  the  Old-Norse 
religion,  89,  110-116,  118, 
154-5. 

Dvergar  (dwarves),  origin  of,  90, 
114;— belief  in,  299. 

Edda,  the  Older,  42-56,  86;— 
discovery  of,  17,  19  ; — Rese- 
nius'  edition,  17,  24; — Arna 
Magnaian  ed.,  23; — German 
translations,  29,  30,  40. 

Edda,  the  Later,  56-58,  86;— 
discovery  of,  16,  17; — publi- 
cation and  translation,  17,  25, 
29,  37,  40. 

Egil  Skallagrimsson  {see  Egil's 
Saga). 

Egil's  Saga,  69 ;— quoted,  173, 
190-1,  242-5,  246-8,  265-6. 

Eichhofs  '  Literature  of  the 
North,'  40. 

Einherjar,  fallen  heroes  chosen 
for  Valhalla,  93,  128. 

Eioar  Eyjolfsson's  dream,  188. 

Einvigi,  242.  248,  250-1. 

Eirikr  Blo^ox,  a  king  of  Nor- 
way, 173,  185,  190-1,  246. 

Eirikr  Rau5i,  visited  and  colo- 
nized Greenland,  78; — extract 
from  his  Saga,  288-292. 


INDEX. 


337 


Eirikr    Sigrsicli,    protected    by 

Odin,    172; — gave   himself  to 

the  god  and  conquered  by  his 

aid,  168,  226. 
Eiriksson,    a   learned   Icelander, 

23  ;— assists    Mallet,    24 ;— his 

•writings,  28. 
Elves,  193; — sacrifices  to   them, 

19-4-5. 
Embla,  the  first  woman,  91,  115. 
Enthusiasm  of  Antiquaries,  15-19, 

21. 
Epic  poems  of  the  Edda,  50-55. 
Evald,  a  Danish  poet,  28. 
EyjafjorSr,  a  firth  in  the  north 

of  Iceland,  IH,  188,  192,  238. 
Eyrbyggja  Saga,    40,    10-71  ; — 

quoted,    204,    207-8,     212-13, 

225,  295-6,  306. 

Fenrisulfr,  a  mythic  monster,  98, 
143,  148;— bound  by  the  ^Esir, 
99 ; — breaks  loose  at  the  end 
of  the  world  and  fights  against 
the  Gods,  101 ;  —  swallows 
Odin  and  is  slain  by  YiOarr, 
102. 

Fensalir,  the  abode  of  Friga,  96, 
129. 

Figure-heads  on  the  prow  of 
ships  forbidden  by  the  Old- 
Icelandic  ]aws,  190. 

Finnr  Junsson's  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  Iceland,  28. 

Finnr  Magnusen,  a  learned  Ice- 
lander, works,  35,  36,  mytho- 
logic  calendar,  87  ; — refer- 
ence, note  189. 

Finngalkn,  a  supernatural  mon- 
ster of  the  north,  300,  301-2. 

Finns,  the,  skilled  in  magic,  273, 
276-7,  and  in  the  Future,  287. 

FjorSungr,  a  division  of  Iceland, 
a  fourth  or  quarter,  160,  214, 
234. 

Fjolsvinnsmal,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
48. 

Fjorgyn,  the  mother  of  Friga,  93, 
129. 


Flateyjabok,  first  Icelandic  edi- 
tion printed,  25. 

Floamanna  Saga,  quoted,  252-3. 

Folkvangar,  the  abode  of  Freyja, 
96,  134,  139,  149. 

Forseti,  the  god  of  Justice,  96, 
137,  139,  worshiped  by  the 
Frisians  in  a  temple  on  Helgo- 
land,  177. 

Fostbraj^ra  Saga,  70; — quoted, 
200. 

Freki,  one  of  Odin's  wolves,  93, 
128. 

Freyja,  the  goddess  of  Love,  96, 
133,  134-5  ;— worship  of,  177- 
8;— statues,  199. 

Freyr,  the  god  of  Fruitfulness, 
95,  133,  134;— worship  of,  173, 
176  ; — temples  and  sacrifices 
173-5;— statues,  198-200. 

FriSJ^jof's  Saga,  63; — quoted, 
j       176,  184-5,  209. 

Friga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  93,  96, 
99; — worship  of,  177-8; — sta- 
tues, 199. 

Frisians,  the,  worshiped  Forseti, 
177. 

Frost-giants,  89,  90,  111. 

Fundinn  Koregr,  60 ; — quoted, 
224. 

Future  rewards  and  punishmeats, 
148-150,  152. 

Future  state,  the,  employments 
in,   306. 

Fylgjur,  attending  spirits,  179  ; — 
gave  to  men  their  peculiar 
qualities,  187-8; — manifesta- 
tions, 188-9. 

Fylki,  in  ancient  ITorway,  a 
srjall  district  ruled  by  a  petty 
king,  215. 

Frereyinga  Saga,  67; — quoted, 
226-7,  275-6. 

Gardar,  a  Dane,  first  discovered 

Iceland,  77. 
GaunguHrolf's     Saga,     quoted, 

194-5. 
Gautrek's  Saga,  224. 


338 


INDEX. 


Ger^a,  the  wife  of  Frej,  48,  95, 
134. 

Geri,  one  of  Odin's  wolves,  93, 
128. 

Gerstenberg's  '  Letters '  and  po- 
ems, 30. 

Geijer  (E.  G ),  35,  Si;  quoted, 
160. 

Giants  or  Demons,  297-9. 

Gimli,  the  highest  heaven,  03, 
103,  122,  148,  152. 

Ginungagap,  89,  90,  111. 

Gisli  Sursson'sSaga,  quoted,  174, 
182. 

GjaUarhorn,  95,  102. 

Glitnir,  the  abode  of  Forset',  96, 
137,  139. 

Gods,  the,  impersonations  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  125; — their 
various  titles,  126-7. 

Go5ar,  priests  and  teachers  of 
religion,  160-3. 

Gorre's  '  Mythic  Histor}-,'  34. 

Grater,  30. 

Greenland  discovered  and  colon- 
ized, 78. 

Grettis  Saga,  71. 

Grimm  (J.),  39,  40,  85,  87 ;  quot- 
ed, 177  ;  and  in  notes  to  Part 
Second,  pasmn, 

Grimnismal,  43;  quoted,  183. 

Groa  (1),  an  enchantress  of  the 
Edda,  55,  264;— (2),  a  sorcer- 
ess in  Iceland,  180. 

Grotta-songr,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
55. 

Grougalldr,  an  Eddaic  poem,  55. 

Groves,  worshiped,  233,  234. 

Grundtvig  (N.  F.  S.),  'Mytholo- 
gy of  the  North,'  35,  87. 

Gu6brandr,  a  celebrated  chief- 
tain of  Gu5brandsdal  in  Nor- 
way, 190,  201-2. 

Gu5brands(lal,  a  large  and  fertile 
valley  of  central  Norway,  170, 
186,  198,  199,  201-2. 

.Gu5runarkvi6a  I.  II.  III.,  Eddaic 
poems,  53  ;  III.  (pioted,  261-2. 

Gn5runarhvaut,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
54. 


Gullinbursti,  the  golden  bristled 

boar  of  Frey,  95,  134,  176. 
Gunnbjorn,    the    discoverer     of 

Greenland,  78. 
Gunnhilda,  a  sorceress,  Queen  of 

king   Eirik   B165ox,  173,    18.5, 

190-1,  272-3;— taught  by  the 

Finns,  277. 
Gunnlaug  Ormstunga's  Saga,  69, 

quoted,  171-2. 
Gunnar   Ilelming,    an   imposter, 

175. 
Gy5ja,  a  priestess,  163. 
Gygar,  giantesses,  297. 
G^^lfaginning,    the   mythological 

book  of  the  Later  P'dda,  56-7. 
Gymir  (see  -^Egir),  97,  138. 

Ilakon  A^alsteinfostri,  a  King  of 
Norway,  171,  242. 

Hakon  Eiriksson  Jarl,  a  king  of 
Norway,  overcomes  the  Joms- 
vlkingar,  73; — quoted,  149; — 
his  devotion  to  the  Gods  made 
the  country  prosperous,  162; 
— anecdote  of  his  religious  zeal 
and  bravery,  166; — sacrificed 
his  son  to  his  tutelary  deity 
and  gains  her  assistance  in 
battle"  186,  222  ;— his  temples 
to  her  199,  201-2 ;— asks  a 
favor  of  her,  226-7  ; — response 
to  his  sacrijfice,  166,  280; — his 
gift  to  Eiuar,  284. 

Hakonarmal,  a  poem,  quoted, 
148. 

Half's  Saga,  60,  61;  quoted,  178, 
KS2-3. 

lliiUVlan,  a  sou  of  king  Bele,  in 
iS'orway,  184. 

llalfdi'ui  Einarsson's  'Icelandic 
History,'  28. 

Ilalirre5r  A"andrax\askald,  178; 
180,  227. 

Ilaloualand,  a  province  of  Nor- 
way, 185-6,  233. 

Ilanuirsheimt,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
46. 

Ilamingjar,  a  class  of  inferior 
goddesses,  179,  180,  183. 


INDEX. 


330 


Ilammerich  (M.),  'Concerning the 
myths  of  Ragnarokk  and  their 
significance  in  the  Old-North- 
ern Religion,'  87. 
Harald  Harfagri,  first  king  over 
all  Norway,  200,  25Y,  267-8; 
Saga  quoted,  272-3,  321. 

Harald  Gormsson,  a  king  of  Den- 
mark, sends  a  sorcerer-spy  to 
Iceland,  192. 

Harald  Hyldatand,  a  king  of 
Denmark,  consecrated  to  Odin, 
168. 

Harbar5slju5,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
47. 

Haulgi,  an  ancient  king  in  Nor- 
way, 185. 

Havamal,  an  Eddaic  poem,  first 
published  from  the  MS.  by  Re- 
senius,  17  ; — subject,  48-9, 
quoted,  264; — extracts,  311  — 
816  (see  Appendix). 

Hei5arviga  Saga,  68. 

Heimdalir,  the  Warder  of  heaven, 
95,  136. 

Heimskringla,  Schoning's  Edi- 
tion, 24 ;  Norwegian  do.,  37  ; 
— account  of,  75,^76. 

Hel,  the  goddess  of  Death, 
98-100,  101, 103,  143-4,  claim- 
ed the  bodies  of  the  dead,  147 
-50,  303. 

Helgakvi^a  Hundingsbana,  an 
Eddaic  poem,  quoted,  166,  167, 
240-1,  303-4. 

Ilelgi,  a  hero  of  the  Edda. 

Helgi  hinn  Magri,  an  Icelandic 
settler,  171. 

Ilelgi,  a  son  of  Bele,  a  king  in 
Norway,  184. 

Helgoland,  a  sacred  island  of  the 
Frisians,  177. 

Ilelheimr,  the  abode  of  Hel,  where 
she  receives  all  who  are  not 
brave  and  virtuous,  99,  146. 

Hera5,  in  Norway,  the  district 
under  a  liersir,  161-2. 

Herder's  Eddaic  translations,  30. 

Hersir,  a  baron,  in  Norway, 
161-2. 


Hervarar  Saga,  24,  63-4. 
Himinbjorg,  the  abode  of  Heini- 

dall,  95,  136,  139. 
Historical     interpretations,     26, 

107-8, 
Historical  Sagas,  64-76. 
Hjalti  Skeggjason,  184. 
Hler  (see  ^gir),  97,  137. 
Hli5skjalf,  the  throne  of  Odin,  93, 

100,  123. 
HlorriSi,  a  name  of  Thor,  94. 
H6fgo6i,     a    temple-priest    (sec 

G65i),  160. 
H6fgy5ja,  a  temple  priestess  {sec 

Gy5ja),  163. 
Holmgang,  a  duel,  242-258. 
Horse,  the,  sacred  to  Frey,  175-6, 

231. 
Howitt's    '  Literature    and    Ro- 
mance of  the  North  of  Europe,' 

41. 
Hodur  (Ho^r)  the  blind,  96, 135  ; 

— kills   Baldur  the  Good,  99, 

144-5  ; — is  slain  by  Vali,  100, 

145; — rejoins   the    Gods,   103, 

152. 
Ilogni,  a  hero  of  the  Edda,  51, 

188. 
HorOaland,  a  petty  kingdom  in 

ancient  Norway,  169,  178. 
Horc:,    a    kind   of   stone    altar, 

205-6. 
Hoskuld,  an  Icelandic  chieftain, 

183-4. 
Hrimfaxi,  the  horse  of  Night,  90. 
Hrim]>ursar,  frost-giants,  89,  90, 

111. 
Hrolf  Ganger  {see  Gaungu-Hrolf). 
Ilrolf  Kraka's  Saga,  61,  quoted, 

188,  269. 
Ilrym,    a  Jotun,    leads    on    the 

IIrim])ursar  to  the  last  battle, 

101. 
Hra!svelgr,  a  Jotun,  the  cause  of 

storms,  91,  113. 
Iluginn,  a  raven  of  Odin,  93,  128. 
Ilundsj^orp,  atown  in  GuObrands- 

dal,  170,  198. 
Ilvergelmir,  89,  92,  103,  117. 
Hylt^n-Cavallius,  37. 


340 


INDEX. 


HymiskviSa,  an   Eddaic  poem, 

46. 
Hyndlulj65,  an  Eddaic  poem,  48, 

quoted  177,  206. 
Hfenir,    assists  in  creating  man, 

91,   115  ; — is  given  to  the  Va- 

nir  in  exchange  for  Nj6r5,  94, 

131. 

Iceland,  first  visited  by  Irish 
monks,  77-8  ; — re-discovered 
and  settled  by  the  Northmen, 
77-8. 

Iduna,  the  Goddess  of  Immortal- 
ity, 57,  95,  135. 

Ihre,  26  ; — his  *  Lexicon '  and 
'  Letters,'  28. 

Immortality  of  the  Soul,  taught 
by  the  Asa  doctrine,  103,  104, 
146-150,  152,  153,  155. 

Ingemund  Thorsteinsson,  an  Ice- 
landic settler,  173,  200. 

Ingolfr,  a  Norwegian,  began  the 
colonization  of  Iceland,  78. 

Jens  Mortensen,  a  Danish  trans- 
lator of  Snorri,  15. 

J61  (Yule),  220. 

Jomsvlkinga  Saga,  73; — quoted, 
284,  303. 

JokuUs,  ice-moimtains,  the  abode 
of  Jotuns,  113. 

Jorrnungandr  (f^ce  Mi5gar5s- 
ormr). 

Jotunheimr,  the  abode  of  the  Jo- 
tuns,  113,  117,  123. 

Jotuns,  giants,  evil  beings,  rude 
nature,  44,  89,  90,  111,  113, 
193,297; — nature's  disturbing 
powers,  154,  older  than  the 
yEsir,  119. 

Kanne's  *  Pantheon,'  34. 

KenniDgar,  third  part  of  the 
Later  Edda,  containing  poeti- 
cal terms  and  paraphrases,  57, 
58. 

Kerganga,  a  kind  of  due],  252-3, 

Ketil  Hang's  Saga,  64,  quoted, 
233. 


Keyser  (R.),  5,  37. 

Kjalnesinga  Saga,  quoted  208-9. 

Kjotvi,  King  of  AgSir,  200. 

Klopstock's  poems,  30. 

Knutr  Svcinsson,  hinn  riki  (Ca- 
nute the  Great),  73,  74. 

Knytlinga  Saga,  23,  73,  74. 

Koeppen's  'Literary  Introduction 
to  Northern  Mythology,  7. 

Konungs-skugssja  [King's  Mir- 
ror], 37. 

Kormak's  Saga,  69-70,  quoted, 
194,  248-250. 

Krakumal,  an  ancient  poem,  quot- 
ed, 167. 

Kraku  Hrei5ar,  an  Icelandic  set- 
tler, 170. 

Kretschman,  the  Barde  Rhin- 
gulph,  30. 

Kristni  Saga  (an  account  of  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  in- 
to Iceland),  66  ; — first  printed, 
23;— quoted,  234. 

Lagerbring's  'History  of  Swe- 
den,' 27. 

Landnamabok  (history  of  the  co- 
lonization of  Iceland),  66,  first 
printed,  24;— quoted,  191-2, 
203-4,  207-8,  213,  234,  237-8, 
301,  321. 

Landvi5i,  the  abode  of  Yi5arr, 
96,  136,  139. 

Landva^ttir,  179,  190-3  ;— drive 
King  Eirik  Blu5ox  from  Nor- 
way, 191; — guard  Iceland 
against  King  Harald'sspy,  192. 

Laxda^la  Saga,  71 ;— quoted,  266 
-7,  274. 

Leifr  hinn  heppni  Eiriksson,  first 
landed  in  America,  79. 

Lexicons  and  handbooks  on 
Northern  Mythology,  28,  35, 
36. 

J  ,p       ,        (  parents  of  the  re- 

T  7r       ■        \  generated     human 
Lifl.rasir,     |  ^^^^.^^^  ^^g 

Lindfors'    'History   of  Icelandic 

Literature,'  35. 
Ljosalfar,  light-elves,  134,  193. 


INDEX. 


341 


Ljosvetninga  Saga,  quoted,  188. 

L65iirr,  assists  in  creating  man, 
91,  115,  142. 

Lokasenna,  or  }  an  Eddaic  poem, 
Lokaglepsa,  \      45. 

Loki,  the  traducer  and  betrayer 
of  the  gods,  45 ; — his  origin 
and  offspring,  98 ; — the  author 
of  evil  among  gods  and  men, 
98,  141-2; — causes  the  death 
of  Baldur  the  Good,  99,  144, 
145  ; — bound  in  a  cavern  until 
the  end  of  time,  100,  145;  — 
leads  the  troops  of  Hel  to  the 
last  battle,  101. 

Loptr,  98,  142. 

Lot-casting,  281-2,  284-5. 

Mallet,  a  French  writer  on 
Northern  History  and  Mytho- 
logy, 24,  25,  29,  41. 

Markusson's  '  Collection  of  Sagas' 
printed  in  Skalholt,  Iceland,  25. 

Marmier's  '  Popular  Songs  of  the 
North,'  40. 

Maxims  from  the  Edda,  311-316. 

Megingjor^r,  Thor's  magic  girdle, 
94. 

Mermaids,  mermen,  300. 

Mi^garSr,  the  world,  90,  91, 113, 
115,  123. 

Mi^garSsormr,  the  world-ser- 
pent, 98,  143; — joins  in  the 
last  battle  against  the  gods, 
101,  and  is  killed  byThor,  102. 

Mimir  the  Wise,  guards  the  foun- 
tain of  wisdom,  92,  118,  119. 

Mjolnir,  Thor's  hammer,  94,  130, 
198,  200  ; — sign  of  the  hammer 
made  to  exorcise  evil  beings, 
111. 

Mone's  (F.  J.)  '  History  of  Hea- 
thendom in  Northern  Europe,' 
34,  8Y. 

Moster,  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
Norway,  170,  204,  207,  215. 

Mounds  worshiped,  233. 

Mountain-giants  (Bergrisar),  89, 
111;— (bergbuar),  i9l,  297. 

Miiller  (P.  E.j,  32. 


Munch  (P.  A.),  Professor  of  His- 
tory in  Christiania,  37  ; — his 
'  Mythologic  and  Heroic  Le- 
gends,' 87. 

Muninn,  one  of  Odin's  ravens,  93, 
128. 

Muspellheimr,  the  source  of  light 
and  life  in  creation,  89,  110, 
111,  122; — agent  in  purifying 
the  world  from  evil,  101,  102, 
151-2. 

Mythic  Sagas,  60-62. 

Ma^ri,  a  chief-temple  in  Thrond- 
heim,  161,  170,  198,  213. 

Naglfar,  the  ship  made  of  dead 
men's  nails,  which  bears  the 
frost-giants  to  the  last  battle, 
101. 

Nanna,  wife  of  Baldur,  burned 
on  his  funeral  pile,  99,  145. 

Nastrond,  the  strand  of  the  dead, 
103,  148. 

New  England  (Vinland),  visited 
by  the  Northmen,  79. 

Newfoundland  (Helluland),  visit- 
ed by  the  Northmen,  79. 

NiShoggr,  the  primitive  evil  be- 
ing, 89,  110; — gnaws  at  the 
root  of  the  all-sustaining  tree, 
92,  118; — banished  from  the 
regenerated  world,  104,  153. 

Ni5ing,  niSstaung,  191,  244. 

Niflheimr,  88,  110,  124,  152. 

Njal's  Saga,  68;— quoted,  149, 
186,  189,  199,  201-2,  295. 

NjorSr,  94-5,  132-3 ;— worship- 
ed as  the  god  of  seafaring, 
172-3. 

Noatun,  the  abode  of  Njor5,  95, 
132,  139. 

Nor5ri  (the  North),  one  of  the 
dwarves  that  hold  up  the  sky, 
91. 

Nornir,  the  northern  Fates,  92, 
120,  121,287-8. 

Nutt  (night),  the  mother  of  Day, 
90,  114. 

Nova  Scotia  (Markland),  visited 
by  the  Northmen,  79. 


342 


INDEX. 


Nyerup  (R.)  Danish  antiquary 
and  historian,  32,  35,  36. 

Nykr,  a  fabulous  sea-horse,  300, 
301. 

Odin,  the  father  of  the  gods,  90 ; 
— with  Vili  and  Ve  created  the 
world,  90,  112;— with  Hsenir 
and  L6(3urr  created  man,  91, 
115;— attributes,  93,  112,  119, 
127-8; — relations,  129; — sings 
of  the  gods  and  Valhalla  and 
Yggdrasill,  43  ; — asks  Vaf- 
|)rudnir  concerning  the  origin  of 
things,  44; — calls  up  a  Yala  in 
order  to  learn  Baldur's  fate 
and  the  inopending  destiny  of 
the  gods,  45 ;  he  and  Thor  re- 
late their  exploits,  47  ; — Odin 
awakened  the  spirit  of  War  by 
casting  his  spear  over  the 
heads  of  the  people,  141,  166  ; 
— selects  the  heroes  slain  in 
battle,  151 ; — worshiped  as  the 
god  of  war,  165; — chieftains 
and  children  often  consecrated 
to  him,  167-9 ; — represented  as 
one-eyed,    119,  167,  170;— sta- 

■   tue  in  Upsala,  198. 

Oddrunargratr,  an  Eddaic  poem, 
64. 

05r,  the  husband  of  Freyja,  96, 
135. 

Oehlenschliiger,  86. 

Olafr  Haraldsson,  a  king  of  Nor- 
way, 184. 

Olafr  hinn  Ilelgi  [Olaf  the  Saint], 
Saga  of,  74; — quoted,  194; — 
227 ;— Olaf  destroyed  a  sta- 
tue of  Thor  in  GuObrandstfal, 
198-9. 

Olafr  Trotelgja,  a  king  in  Verma- 
land  in  Sweden,  162. 

Olaf  Tryggvason's  Saga,  74; — 
quoted  on  the  worship  of  Thor, 
171-2,  200,  201;— of  Frey, 
173-5; — on  the  guardian  spir- 
its of  Iceland,  192;  — Olaf 
burns  a  statue  of  Thor,  201 ; — 
an  instance  of  Olaf's  mode  of 


christianizing  Norway,  225-6; 
—227,  273-4. 

Omens,  294-6. 

Orkne}  inga  Saga,  24,  66; — quot- 
ed, 274. 

Ossian's  Poems  awakened  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  northern 
literature  in  Germany,  29. 

Oxen  worshiped,  231. 

Oku-J)6rr,  a  name  of  Thor,  94. 

Olvusvatn,  a  lake  in  Iceland,  186, 
199. 

Ondvegissular  [sacred  columns], 
174,  202-4;— guided  the  set- 
tlers of  Iceland  to  a  honie, 
202-3,  280. 

Orvar-Odd's  Saga,  64; — quoted, 
292. 

Paulus  Diaeonus,  a  Longobard 
writer,  14. 

Percy's  translation  of  Mallet's 
'Introduction,'  25,  41. 

Peringskjold,  note  21. 

Petersen's  (N.  M.)  History  of  Den- 
mark in  Heathen  Antiquity, 
87. 

Philology  enriched  by  the  stu- 
dies of  Northern  Antiquaries, 
31. 

Pjgott's  'Manual  of  Scandinavian 
Mythology,'  41. 

Plato's  Atlantis,  20 ; — his  wisdom 
derived  from  the  Swedish 
Skalds,  20. 

Poets,  28,  30,  36-7. 

Purifications,  228-9. 


Rafn  (Prof.  C.  C),  34,  38,  77. 

Ragnar  Lu6br«')k'8  Saga,  61,  62; 
— his  death,  167;— saga  quot- 
ed, 302. 

RagnaroWcr,  43,  44,  101-2,  151- 
3,  155. 

Ran,  wife  of  J£s\v,  97,  138;— 
claimed  the  bodies  of  the 
drowned,   150. 

Rask  (R.  K.),  31,  32. 

Rationalism,  21,  22. 


INDEX. 


343 


RaiiSsey,  an  island  of  Norway, 
170,  201. 

Raven,  the,  a  sacred  bird,  93, 
128,  166,  232,  280. 

Resenius,  publislied  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Edda,  17. 

Reykjanes,  the  southwestern 
promontory  of  Iceland,  192. 

Rigsmal,  an  Eddaic  poem,  49,  50. 

Romantic  literature  of  the  south 
translated  by  the  Icelanders, 
64. 

Romantic  Sagas,  63,  64. 

Roskva,  an  attendant  of  Thor, 
94,  131. 

Rugman  (J.),  a  learned  Icelander 
in  Sweden,  18,  19. 

Riihs,  spread  the  study  of  north- 
ern literature  in  Germany,  30; 
— traced  the  Icelandic  poetry 
and  mythology  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  31. 

Runar  [runes],  163; — magic 
words  or  incantations,  263-6 ; 
used  in  divination,  283. 

Runic  Chapter,  49,  264. 

Sacrifices,  166,  186,  216;— pub- 
lic, 217;— periodical,  219-221; 
— human  victims,  222-3 ; — 
self-immolation,  223-4 ; — con- 
secration to  the  gods,  224-6 ; 
gifts  and  offerings,  226-8. 

Saga,  the  goddess  of  History,  96, 
136,  139. 

Sagas,  58 ; — relating  to  Denmark, 
72-4 ; — to  Norway,  74-6. 

Saxo  Grammaticus,  14; — quoted, 
168. 

Schlozer,  a  skeptic  in  northern 
mythology,  30. 

Schouing's  Heimskringla,  24 ; — 
historical  writings,  27. 

SchuLz  on  Northern  Antiquities, 
29. 

Scott's  abstract  of  the  Eyrbyggja 
Saga  mentioned,  41. 

Seers,  285-7. 

Sessrymnir,  the  hall  of  Freyja, 
96,  134. 


Sigrdrifumal,  264,  310; — extracts 
in  Chap.  XXVII.  {see  Appen- 
dix). 
Sigyn,  the  wife  of  Loki,  100. 
Simroek's  translation  of  the  Ed- 
das,  40. 

SkaSi,  the  wife  of  Njor5,  95,  132. 

Skalda,  a  treatise  on  prosody, 
rhetoric,  &c.,  connected  with 
the  Later  Edda,  58. 

Ski6bla5nir,  the  ship  of  Frey,  95, 
134.  • 

Skinfaxi,  the  steed  of  Day,  91. 

Skirnisfor,  an  Eddaic  poem,  48. 

Skuld,  one  of  the  nornir,  goddess 
of  the  Future,  92,  120. 

Sleipnir,  Odin's  eight-footed 
horse,  94. 

Snorri  Sturlason,  the  Icelandic 
historian,  15,  86; — his  account 
of  the  arrival  of  Odin  and  the 
^sir  in  the  north,  158-9. 

Solarlj65,  an  Eddaic  poem,  50. 

Sonargolltr,  the  atonement-boar, 
176. 

Sogubrot,  a  historical  fragment, 
62. 

Sokkvabekkr,  the  abode  of  Saga, 
96,  136,  139. 

Stafir  [letters],   163,  283. 

Starka5r,  a  semi-fabulous  war- 
rior or  giant,  sacrifices  Vikarr 
to  Odin,  169; — carries  oflf  king 
Alf 's  daughter,  185. 

Stephanius,  16,  17,  18. 

Stephens  (G.),  37. 

Stones,  worshiped,  233-4. 

Storms,  caused  by  the  evil  Jo- 
tuns,  91,  113. 

Sturlunga  Saga,  71. 

Styrbjorn  Sviakappi,  with  his 
hosts,  slain  by  Odin,  168; — 
Thor  appears  to  him  in  battle, 
172. 

Su5reyjar  [South  Islands],  now 
Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands, 
171. 

Su5ri  [the  South],  one  of  the  four 
dwarves  which  bear  up  the 
sky,  91. 


344 


INDEX. 


Suhm,  a  Danish  Antiquary,  23, 
24,  note  21. 

Sun,  moon  and  stars  formed  from 
the  sparks  of  Muspell,  90,  91, 
114; — the  sun  and  moon  pur- 
sued by  the  Jotuns,  91,  114; — 
who  swallow  them,  101 ; — new 
ones  appear,  103. 

Supreme  being,  higher  than  all 
the  ^Esir,  alluded  to,  104,  153, 
155. 

Surtur,  the  Fire-god,  89,  101-2, 
110,  152. 

Svartalfar,  the  swarthy  elves, 
115.  ^ 

Saihrimnir,  the  boar,  of  whose 
flesh  the  Einherjar  partake, 
93, 

Ssemundr  hinn  Fr65i,  editor  of  the 
Older  Edda,  86. 

Tacitus,  quoted,  282. 

Tegn^r,  36. 

Temples,  of  Thor  in  Norway  and 
Iceland,  170,  207-8;— of  Frey 
in  Throndheim  and  Iceland, 
173-4;— one  to  Odin,  Thor 
and  Frey  in  Upsala,  175,  198; 
— to  Baldur  in  Norway,  176, 
199 ; — to  Forseti  in  Helgoland, 
177  ;— to  Thorgerd  Horga- 
brud,  186,  199 ;— other  temples, 
199,  200; — construction  and 
arrangement  of  temples,  206- 
211;— dedication  of,  211;— 
sanctity  of,  212,  214;— support 
of,  214-215. 

Theories  concerning  the  Asa  My- 
thology, 105-9. 

ThiOrandi  Hallsson,  slain  by  the 
Disir  of  his  family,  181-2. 

Thingsokn,  a  judicial  district  in 
Iceland,  160. 

Thjalfi,  an  attendant  of  Thor,  94, 
131. 

Thor,  the  strongest  of  the  gods, 
94;— the  god  of  thunder,  129, 
130;— his  attributes,  94,  129- 
131 ; — fights  against  Trolls  and 
Jotuns,   94,  130;— the  god  of 


bondsmen  after  death,  94, 150 ; 
— held  the  highest  place  in  the 
worship  of  Norway  and  Ice- 
land, 170; — directed  his  wor- 
shipers to  a  place  of  abode, 
170-1 ; — invoked  by  those  who 
trusted  in  their  own  strength, 
171; — by  wrestlers,  171-2; — 
sometimes  appeared  as  a  red- 
bearded    man,    172; — statues, 

198,  199,  201,  204,  207,  208: 
— Eddaic  poems  relating  his 
deeds,  46,  47. 

Thorfinnr  Karlsfnefni,  visits 
Greenland,79 ; — visits  America 
and  remains  three  years,  80. 

ThorgerSr  Horgabru5r,  an  infe- 
rior deity,  185-7  ; — worshiped 
by  Hakon  Jarl,  186,  199,  226- 
7 ; — aided  him  against  the 
Jomsvikings,   186, — statue  of, 

199,  201. 

Thorhaddr  hinn  Gamli,  a  chief- 
priest  in  Throndheim,  161. 

Thorhallr,a  soothsayer (spama5r), 
181-2. 

Thorkelin,  24,  28. 

Thorlacius,  24,  28; — the  young- 
er, 32. 

Thorolfr,  a  sorcerer  in  Iceland, 
187. 

Thorolfr  Mostrarskegg,  directed 
by  Thor  to  Iceland,  170,  204; 
— sacredness  of  his  temple  and 
lands,  212-13;— devoted  to 
Thor  from  his  birth,  225-6. 

Thorsnes,  a  promontory  in  Ice- 
land, 170. 

Thorsteinn  Uxafot,  189. 

Thorvaldr  Eiriksson,  visits  Ame- 
rica, 79. 

Thorvaldr  Vi^forli  [the  far-trav- 
eled], introduced  Chri:^tianity 
into  Iceland  (A.  D.  981),  234. 

Thorvaldsen,  the  sculptor,  a  son 
of  Icelandic  parents,  the  lineal 
descendant  of  a  native  Ameri- 
can, note  80. 

Thorvar^r  E3'steinsson,  cured  by 
the  Elves,  194. 


INDEX. 


345 


Throndheim,  Jiniudheimr  [Dront- 

heim],  temples,  IVO,  1^73,  198. 
Thru^heimr,    )  the     abode       of 
ThruSvangar,  )    Thor,  94,  130. 
Thrymheimr,  the  abode  of  SkaSi, 

95,  133. 
ThrymskviSa,  an  Eddaic  poem, 

46. 
Thulr,  an  improvisator,  1G3. 
Thvera  in  Iceland,  1^74-5,  180. 
Torfason,   ThormoSr   [Torfa3us], 

18,  22,  25-6. 
Tyr,    the    god   of   bravery,    95, 

135. 
Tryker,    a    German,  found    the 

vine  growing  in  America,  from 

which  Vinland  was  named,  79. 

Ulf  the  Red  [RauSulfr],  182-3. 

Ullr,  the  god  of  winter  life  and 
hunting,  96,  137,  note  139. 

Unger,  37. 

Upsala,  175,  183,  198,  210. 

Ur^arbrunnr,  the  sacred  foun- 
tain of  the  Fates,  92,  120,  121. 

Ur^armani,  295-6, 

UrSr,  one  of  the  nornir,  a  god- 
dess of  the  Past,  92,  120. 

UtgarSr,  the  region  of  the  Jotuns, 
90,  113. 

Utgar^a-Loki,  142. 

Vaff)ru$nismal,  an  Eddaic  poem, 

28,  44;— quoted,  173. 
Yala,  a  seeress  or  prophetess,  43, 

45,    63;— description  of,  287- 

293. 
Valfa^ir  [Odin],  93,  127,  128. 
Valhalla,    the   abode   of    Odin's 

chosen  sons,  93,  97,  128,  146 — 

150,  165-7. 
Vali,  one  of  the  ^Esir,  96,  135;— 

avenges  the  death  of  Baldur, 

100,     144,     145 ; — rejoins    the 

gods,  103,  152. 
Valkyrjur,   93,    96-7,    120,    137, 

139,  148. 
Vanaheimr,    the    home    of   the 

Vanir,  the  air,  94,  123. 
Vanir,  94,  96,  131-2. 


Vapnafjor^r,  a  firth  in  the  N.  E. 

part  of  Iceland,  192. 
Vatnsdal,    a  valley   in   Iceland, 

180. 
Vatnsdaila    Saga,    70  ; — quoted, 

173-4,    176-7,    180,    187,  200, 

271-2,  276,  293,  294,  321. 
VegtamskviSa,  an  Eddaic  poem, 

45. 
VerSandi,  one  of  the  nornir,  a 

goddess  of  the  Present,  92, 120. 
Vermalaud,  a  petty  kingdom  in 

ancient  Sweden,  162. 
Vestri    [the   West],    one   of  the 

four  dwarves  that  sustain  the 

sky,  91. 
Videlin  [Paul],  22. 
Vi^arr,  the  silent  god,  96,  139 

note; — the  victor   in  the  last 

battle,   102,   136;— rejoins  the 

gods  in  the  regenerated  world, 

103,  152. 
Viga-Glum's  Saga,  69; — quoted, 

174-5,  180,  238-9. 
Viga-Styr's  Saga,  67-8. 
Vigfus,  a  Norwegian  hersir,  180, 

185. 
Vikarr,  a  king,   sacrificed  for  a 

favorable  wind,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Odin,  169. 
Vikingar,  13,  222;— Viking  life, 

61-2,  319-320. 
Vingolf,   the    hall    of    the   god- 
desses, 93,  128-9,  149. 
Volsunga  Saga,  60,  quoted,  167- 

8. 
Viilundar    kvi^a,     an     Eddaic 

poem,  quoted,  240. 
Voluspfi,  an  Eddaic  poem,  43  ;— 

reference,  119,  139,  141. 

Waterfalls,  worshiped,  233,  234. 
Westphalen's  'Monuments,'  29. 
Wolff's    Handbook    of    German 

Mythology,  40. 
Worm,   (Ole)  [Olaus  Wormius], 

16. 
Worship  of  divine  beings  among 

heathens,  166-7  ; — among  the 

Northmen,  158-9;— The  wor- 


346 


INDEX. 


ship  of  the  Gods  by  rulers, 
brought  prosperity  to  the  peo- 
ple; neglect  thereof  brought 
adversity,  162. 

Yggdrasill,  the  emblem  of  the 
world,  44,  92,  102,  117. 

Ymir,  the  first  chaotic  matter, 
89,  lll;--from  which  the 
world  was  formed,  90,  112, 
113,  154. 

Ynglinga  Saga,  76,  quoted,  209- 
^210. 

Yrp,  an  inferior  deity  worshiped 
in  the  Xorth,  185;— aided  Ha- 
kon  Jarl  against  the  Jomsvik- 
ingar,  186;— statue,  199. 

^gir,  the  god  of  the  Sea,  97, 
137-8;  entertains  the  :^sir  45, 
46. 

^gisdrekka  (see  Lokasenna),  45. 

^sir,   21,  26,    45,    67,   85;— de- 


scended from  Odin,  90,  93,  112  ; 
— acting  powers  in  the  Crea- 
tion, 90-91,  112-115;— banish 
evil  (the  Jotuns)  from  the 
world,  90,  113;— their  judg- 
ment-seat, 92,  121 ; — home  and 
assembling-place,  93,  122-3; 
— attributes  and  abodes,  93-97, 
125-139; — they  form  connec- 
tions with  the  Jotuns  and 
bring  evil  into  the  world,  98, 
141 ; — suffer  by  Loki's  malig- 
nity and  duplicity,  98-9,142-5 ; 
— bind  him  and  his  offspring 
until  the  end  of  the  world,  100, 
145  ; — ^join  in  the  last  battle, 
102; — are  slain  together  with 
their  enemies,  102,  152,  155; — 
arise  regenerated  with  the 
new  heaven  and  the  new  earth, 
103,  152,  155; — historical  the- 
ory of  their  arrival  in  the 
North,  26-7,  159. 


CORRECTIONS  AND  ADDITIONS. 


Page  25,  line  3 — Mallet's  'History'  comes  down  to  the  death  of 
Christian  III,  to  1559. 
84,       22 — For  were,  read  was. 

39,  15 — ^To  the  list  add  the  title :  '  Antiquites  Russes  et 
Orientales  d'aprfes  les  monuments  his- 
toriqiies  des  Islandais  et  des  anciens  Scan- 
dinaves,'  a  collection  of  the  Scandinavian 
sources  to  the  history  of  Russia  and  other 
Eastern  countries,  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  Middle  of  the  XV.  century.  2  vols. 
Imp.  4to.,  with  facsimiles,  maps  and  plates. 
48,       15 — For    Fjols-vinns,    read    Fjolsvinns  (=   fjol    -t 

svinns). 
48,       27 —  "     Ylfiinga,  read  Ylfinga. 
50,         3 —  "    Amme,  rea(/ Amma. 
54,         1 — dele  . 

54,         8 — For  Gumar,  read  Gunnar. 
67,         4 —  "     Brestason,  read  Brestisson, 
108,       28 —  "     and  were  clothed,  read  and  clothed. 
121,       25—  "     far,  read  {oi\ 
149,       note  * — For  Ynlinga,  read  t^nglinga. 
170,       18 — For  Randsey,  read  Raudsey  or  RauSsey. 
17G,       note  § — For  menn  a  heit,  read  menn  J)a,  heit. 

182  "^2  [  ^^''  Tl^orhalli,  read  Thorhall. 

189,  \(J—For  Geiter,  read  Geitir. 

189,  note  f — For  mir,  read  m6r. 

226,  27 — For  Brestersson,  read  Bresti.sson. 

234,  15—"     Yi$f(irla,rmfZVi$fOrli. 

273,  25—  "     Thorer,  read  Thurir. 

275,  17 —  "     Brestarsson,  read  Brestisson. 

276'       '^^'  ^3  [  ^^'^  Thrond,  read  Thrand. 
294,         n—For  Silfra,  read  Silfri. 


Date  Due 

•JY  V.U  s> 

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BL860 .K44 

The  religion  of  the  Northmen; 

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